Shi Hu's ascent to power came under the shadow of his uncle, Shi Le, the founder of Later Zhao. The familial connection between Shi Hu and Shi Le ran deep, with their ancestors, Zhouhezhu and Beixie, possibly being brothers. Shi Hu's own father, Koumi, met a mysterious fate, either meeting an untimely demise or being exiled and never returning. As a result, Shi Hu was raised under the care of Shi Le's father, Zhouhezhu, which led to speculation that he may have been Shi Le's cousin. These early years were marked by separation and adversity. Shi Le was kidnapped and sold to Shandong, while his mother, Lady Wang, and Shi Hu remained in Shangdang, Shanxi. It was not until the Jin general, Liu Kun, sought to forge alliances with Shi Le that Lady Wang and the young Shi Hu were finally reunited with Shi Le. Their reunion took place when Shi Hu was just 17 years old, marking the beginning of his own journey towards power and tyranny.
Shi Hu, notorious for his cruelty and restless nature, possessed remarkable skill and bravery on the battlefield, often achieving notable military triumphs. When Shi Le declared himself the Grand Chanyu and King of Zhao, he bestowed upon Shi Hu the position of his chief assistant, effectively making him the commander-in-chief of the imperial guards and the de facto regent for the Grand Chanyu. This granted Shi Hu immense power, as he governed the affairs of the diverse nomadic tribes from his stronghold at Ye City. However, tensions arose when Shi Le chose to relocate the capital to Ye City. He appointed his son, Shi Hong (石弘), as the governor of Ye City and tasked the General of Valiant Cavalry, Wang Yang, with overseeing the six nomadic tribes, while recalling Shi Hu to Xiangguo. This decision left Shi Hu feeling discontented.
When Shi Le declared himself emperor, he bestowed the title of Crown Prince upon Shi Hong (石弘), while his younger brother, Shi Hong (石宏), received the prestigious position of Grand Chanyu. Shi Hu, however, was given the roles of Prefect of the Imperial Secretariat and Grand Commandant, along with the title of Prince of Zhongshan. Despite these high-ranking positions, Shi Hu harbored deep dissatisfaction. He confided in his son, Shi Sui, expressing his grievances, "I am the one who built the magnificent Zhao empire. The Grand Chanyu's trust was truly in me, yet he gave the title to the yellow-lipped child of a maid. The thought of it keeps me awake at night and affects my appetite. There is no need to leave any descendants for his majesty after his passing. Whenever I think of this, I cannot sleep nor eat well. There is no need to leave any descendent for his majesty after his death."[1] This incident sheds light on Shi Hu's ambitious nature and the tensions that existed within the empire even during Shi Le's reign.
In the 7th Month of 333, Shi Le's reign came to an end as illness claimed his life. His eldest son, Shi Hong (石弘), was crowned emperor, but it was Shi Hu who held the real authority. Declaring himself Prime Minister, King of Wei, and the Grand Chanyu, Shi Hu seized control of the court. Amidst this power struggle, a plot brewed to overthrow Shi Hu, masterminded by Lady Liu[2] and Shi Kan.[3] However, their scheme ultimately proved futile as Shi Hu swiftly and ruthlessly eliminated both conspirators.
In response to the uprising, Prince Shi Sheng of Hedong and Shi Lang, stationed in Guanzhong and Luoyang respectively, took up arms against Shi Hu but tragically met their demise on the battlefield. Undeterred, Shi Hu seized the opportunity and in the following year, in the 11th month, he deposed Shi Hong and proclaimed himself as the Regent Heavenly King of Zhao. Shi Hu didn't waste any time consolidating his power, swiftly eliminating his rivals. Shi Hong (石弘), his younger brother Shi Hong (石宏), their half-brother Shi Hui, and Lady Cheng, Shi Hong's mother, all fell victim to his ruthless ambition. Shi Hu then set his sights on establishing his own dynasty. In 335, he relocated the capital to Ye City, and by 337, he confidently declared himself the Heavenly King of Great Zhao. Finally, in 349, Shi Hu declared himself the Emperor of Zhao, solidifying his rule during the turbulent period of the Sixteen Kingdoms.
During the era of the Great Migration, the power of minority tribes in the Central Plains region hinged on several crucial factors. Territory size, control over households, military strength, combat prowess, and the collection of rent and taxes all played a part. Take, for instance, the Shi Zhao regime. Faced with a lack of military forces and labor, they resorted to large-scale plundering of the common people to compensate. A particularly ruthless tactic employed by the Shi Zhao regime was the forceful resettlement of millions[i] of Han Chinese and minority ethnic groups. These displaced individuals were relocated to key political and military centers, such as Xiangguo, Ye City, and the provinces of Si[4] and Ji,[5] transforming them into strategic strongholds for the regime's capital.
However, resistance against the Shi Zhao regime's plunder often resulted in a display of extreme brutality. Shi Le, known for his ruthless tactics, was surpassed in savagery by Shi Hu. Their viciousness was exemplified during the attack on Qingzhou,[6] where Shi Hu was sent by Shi Le. Following the surrender of Guanggu, Shi Hu unleashed a merciless massacre, claiming the lives of thirty thousand soldiers. Even though numerous civilians remained in the city, Shi Hu contemplated exterminating them all. In an act of compassion, Liu Zheng, the Inspector of Qingzhou appointed by Shi Le, bravely confronted Shi Hu, stating, “Your uncle sent me to Qingzhou to govern the people. If you were to kill every single person, I would no longer have a position. I would have to go back with you.” Reluctantly, Shi Hu acceded to Liu Zheng's appeal and issued an order sparing the lives of 700 men and women. These fortunate individuals were placed under Liu Zheng's command to remain in Guanggu.[ii]
Shi Hu's reign was marked by an unprecedented burden on the people, with widespread military conscription and forced labor. This weight became particularly evident during Shi Hu's planned attack on Murong Huang in Liaoxi. To amass a formidable army, he issued a decree mandating that exempt families in several provinces, including Si, Ji, Qing, Xu, You, Bing, and Yong, must send three out of every five able-bodied men, or two out of every four. Families without exemptions were expected to contribute all able-bodied men to the army. As a result of these levies, an astonishing number of over 500,000 men were assembled in the former military camps of Ye City.[7]
Shi Hu's reign saw the extravagant display of power through the construction of opulent palaces and grand temples. In Ye City, a staggering number of over forty temples and pavilions were erected, while Chang'an and Luoyang became home to magnificent palaces. The scale of this endeavor required the labor of more than 400,000 workers. Meanwhile, Shi Hu focused on reinforcing his military might by preparing the southern army in Henan, Bing, Shuo, and Qin provinces. Simultaneously, provinces like Qing, Ji, and You mobilized a significant portion of their able-bodied men, resulting in a staggering 500,000 individuals dedicated to the production of armor in these regions.
The pursuit of personal gain by officials and nobles wreaked havoc on the population, leaving approximately seventy percent of households grappling with unemployment. Tragedy struck during ambitious construction projects, claiming a heavy toll. Take for instance the ill-fated boatmen, a staggering 17,000 of whom perished at sea or succumbed to the savage beasts lurking in the mountains—a loss equivalent to one-third of their entire community. And let us not forget the 16,000 men torn from their homes in Yong, Luo, Qin, and Bing to toil away in the construction of Chang'an's Wei Yang Palace. To make matters worse, 260,000 individuals from different provinces were mobilized to renovate Luoyang's grand palaces. Meanwhile, a daunting task awaited 160,000 laborers from nearby counties, accompanied by an army of 100,000 carts, as they embarked on the treacherous mission of transporting mud to construct the sprawling Hualin Garden and the mighty Great Wall, stretching across vast expanses spanning dozens of li. But alas, fate had other plans, and a raging storm descended upon them, resulting in the tragic demise of tens of thousands.[8]
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Shi Hu, driven by his ambition to conquer Eastern Jin, issued a decree for the conscription of soldiers. The process was brutal, demanding that for every soldier, five individuals were obligated to provide one cart, two oxen, fifteen hu of rice, and ten pieces of silk. Failure to meet these requirements resulted in death sentences. The desperation of the impoverished populace led them to sell their own children to meet the military's demands. Despite these extreme measures, the requirements remained unmet, forcing some to resort to begging on the roads. The harrowing sight of accumulating corpses became tragically commonplace, yet “the demand for recruits continued to go unfulfilled.”[9]
In his relentless pursuit of power, Shi Hu resorted to the heinous act of forcibly taking over 30,000 young girls, aged between thirteen and twenty, into his harem. Not stopping there, local governments, eager to please the tyrant, forcefully seized more than 9,000 married women who were deemed beautiful. This gave rise to the distressing saying, "One hundred thousand women fill the palace through abduction."[10] The consequences were devastating, as the already dwindling population of the Central Plains further declined, and the orderly functioning of production was disrupted.
"The burdens of forced labor were overwhelming, the military campaigns relentless," observed historians at that time. "To make matters worse, a prolonged drought drove grain prices to unprecedented heights, with a jin of gold equivalent to 2 dou of rice, plunging the people into dire straits." Desperation and despair gripped the regions between the Hai, Dai, He, and Ji rivers, where any hope for peace seemed nonexistent. Chaos and rebellion ran rampant between Jing, Chu, Xu, and Yang, leaving no corner untouched by the flames of unrest.[11]
Amidst dire circumstances, the people struggled to survive, their very existence hanging by a thread. Fueled by festering tensions and long-standing conflicts, the brewing storm of upheaval seemed inevitable, its form yet to be determined. In the year 337, a blaze of rebellion ignited in the Nanshan Mountains of Duxian, Guanzhong[12], under the leadership of a bold and enigmatic figure Hou Ziguang, who dared to proclaim himself as the "Crown Prince of the Buddha." The ranks of the uprising swelled, with multitudes flocking to its banner. Similarly, in 342, another fiery eruption erupted in Beiqiu, Hebei[13], spearheaded by Li Hong, drawing thousands of households into its fold. Although both rebellions were short-lived and ultimately quashed, they served as resounding declarations of the Han Chinese people's unwavering defiance against the economic exploitation and political oppression enforced by Shi Hu's regime.
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[1] Records of Shi Jilong, JS106
[2] Shi Le's wife.
[3] Shi Kan was one of Shi Le's adopted sons. He was a Han Chinese originally surnamed Tian.
[4] With its capital at Ye City.
[5] With its capital at Xindu, present-day Jizhou, Hebei.
[6] With its capital at Guanggu, present-day 8 li northwest of Qingzhou, Shandong.
[7] Records of Shi Jilong, JS107
[8] Ibid.
[9] Biography of the Jie barbarian Shi Le, WS102
[10] Records of Shi Jilong, JS107
[11] Ibid.
[12] Present-day southeast of Xi'an, Shaanxi.
[13] Present-day southeast of Gaotang, Shandong.
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[i] In Records of Shi Le (JS104):
Lu Ming attacked Ninghei in Chiping, and they surrendered. Afterward, Lu Ming also defeated Dong Yan and Suanzao before returning. He relocated over 20,000 surrendered households to Xiangguo.
[...] [Shi Le] relocated over 30,000 households of the Wuhuan, Zhan Guang, Liu Duo, and other tribes from Pingyuan to Xiangguo.
[...] Zhi Xiong and Lu Ming attacked Ninghei in Dongwuyang and captured it. [...] They relocated over 10,000 of its people to Xiangguo.
[...] After [Liu] Cong's death, [...] Jin Zhun killed [Cong's son] Can in Pingyang. [...] [Shi] Le then attacked Jin Zhun in the small city of Pingyang, and the Grand Intendant Zhou Zhi and others led 6,000 mixed households to surrender to Le. Over 100,000 Ba chiefs, as well as various Qiang and Jie tribes, surrendered. Shi Le relocated them to various counties in Sizhou.
[...] Shi Sheng attacked Liu Yao’s subject Yin Ping, the Administrator of Henan, in Xin'an, and beheaded him. He captured over ten forts and seized more than 5,000 households as spoils of war, which they brought back.
In ZZTJ, during the 3rd year of Xianhe era of Jin:
The Later Zhao general, Shi Cong, [...] captured over 20,000 households from Shouchun and brought them back.
In Records of Liu Yao (JS103):
Shanggui (after Liu Yao was captured by Shi Le's general, Shi Kan, Liu Yao's remaining forces retreated west to defend Qinzhou, with Shanggui as its capital) collapsed, and Jilong [...] relocated over 9,000 people from their bureaucratic establishments, military officers, refugees from the eastern region, as well as prominent families from the Qin and Yong regions to Xiangguo.
In Records of Shi Le (JS104):
Jilong captured Shanggui [...] Le relocated 150,000 tribes of the Di and Qiang to Sizhou and Jizhou.
[...] [Shi] Sheng [...] relocated over 5,000 households of ethnic groups from Qinzhou to Yongzhou.
[...] Jilong [...] relocated over 100,000 households of both Han Chinese and nomadic people from Yongzhou and Qinzhou to the eastern region of the Passes (Guandong).
[...] He relocated over 30,000 households from Qinzhou to Qingzhou and Bingzhou.
In Records of Shi Jilong (JS106):
Suotou Yuju and his 30,000 of his men surrendered to Jilong [...] Their forces were dispersed among the six provinces of Ji and Qing.
[...] Jilong attacked Duan Liao [...] and then relocated over 20,000 households to the provinces of Yong, Si, Yan, and Yu.
[...] He raided the northern border [of Eastern Jin] in Jing and Yang, capturing 70,000 households before returning.
[...] He relocated over 10,000 households from Liaoxi, Beiping, and Yuyang to the provinces of Yan, Yu, Yong, and Luo.
[...] Wang Zhuo captured Wujie [...] and relocated over 7,000 households to Yongzhou.
[ii] In Vol. 120 TPYL, it cites the Records of Later Zhao from The Spring and Autumn of the Sixteen Kingdoms:
Shi Hu was cruel and ruthless, showing no regard for justice. When capturing cities and forts, he would massacre both men and women, sparing few.
In Records of Shi Le (JS104):
Cao Yi surrendered and was sent to Xiangguo, but Le killed him and massacred his multitude of thirty thousand. Jilong intended to kill all of Cao Yi's followers, but Liu Zheng, the Inspector of Qingzhou, said, “You leave Zheng behind to govern the people. If there is no one left, who do I govern? If so, Zheng will go back!” So Jilong reluctantly allowed seven hundred men and women to stay with Zheng and guard Guanggu.