The Rise of Former Yan and Murong Clan
Former Yan’s Murong clan was a branch of the Xianbei tribe. During the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Xianbei leader Tanshihuai partitioned his territory into three distinct regions: Central, Eastern, and Western. The Eastern region encompassed more than twenty settlements, the Central over ten, and the Western over twenty. The Yuwens belonged to the Eastern region, the Murongs to the Central, and the Tuobas to the Western.
The Murong clan, known as the "White Xianbei," stood out due to their fair complexion. Originally residing in the Liaoxi region under the Cao Wei dynasty, they later migrated to the northern part of Liaodong during the Wei-Jin transition. Led by their chieftain, Murong Hui, the Murongs regularly conducted border raids in the Liaoxi region. However, in 294, they made a significant change by settling in the city of Daji[1] and embracing a more settled and agricultural lifestyle. During the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty from 307 to 312, Murong Hui declared himself the Xianbei Grand Chanyu.
Upon his father's death, Huang wasted no time in proclaiming himself as the King of Yan in 337. Soon after, in 343, Shi Hu of Later Zhao, with a formidable army of 200,000 soldiers, launched an attack on Yan. Yet, to everyone's surprise, the Yan forces emerged triumphant in a decisive battle, obliterating the Shi Zhao troops and leaving over 80,000 enemy soldiers dead. This resounding victory bolstered the confidence of the Murong clan, prompting them to relocate their capital to Longcheng[2] and solidify their power. With their military prowess on full display, the Murong clan went on to conquer the Xianbei Yuwen tribe, while also achieving significant victories over the Buyeo and Goguryeo. These conquests firmly established the Murong clan as the dominant force in the Liaoxi region, paving the way for future ambitious campaigns led by Murong Jun as they sought to expand their dominion into the Central Plains.
During the twilight of the Western Jin Dynasty, Liu Yao seized power in Luoyang and Chang'an. This pivotal moment forced the aristocratic families of the Central Plains into a precarious situation. Faced with difficult choices, some families opted to migrate south of the Yangtze River, while others sought safety in Liangzhou, protected by the Zhang clan. Meanwhile, aristocratic families from Shandong and Hebei found solace in Youzhou, finding refuge under the influential local landlord, Wang Jun.[3] However, Wang Jun's reign was tainted by corruption, and the encroaching threat of Shi Le's invasion loomed ever closer. Consequently, the noble families who had initially aligned themselves with Wang Jun gradually shifted their allegiance, seeking sanctuary in the Liaoxi region under the watchful eye of Cui Bi, the appointed Inspector of Pingzhou. When the Murong clan took control of the Liaoxi region, these aristocratic families pledged their loyalty to them as well.
Among these families were Pei Yi and Pei Kai from Hedong, Yang Dan and Yang Yu from Youbeiping, You Sui from Guangping, Feng Chou, Feng Yi, Feng Yu, and Gao Zhan from Bohai, Song Gai and Liu Zan from Pingyuan, Miu Kai from Lanling, Kong Zuan from Luguo, Song Shi from Xihe, Huangfu Ji and Huangfu Zhen from Anding, and many others. These families not only brought their own clans but also led their fellow villagers, followers, and tenants when they migrated. Gao Zhan, for example, “led several thousand families in tandem with his uncle”,[4] when they pledged allegiance to the Murong clan.
Following their allegiance to the Murong clan, these aristocratic families shared their expertise in governing the Han people with their new rulers. They stressed the importance of treating the Han with respect and acknowledged the Eastern Jin Dynasty as their suzerain.[i] Murong Hui, in a show of loyalty to the Jin dynasty, took decisive action when envoys from Shi Le of Later Zhao arrived in Liaoxi. He detained them and sent them to Jiangnan, solidifying his commitment to the Eastern Jin Dynasty. These political strategies had a profound impact, attracting a significant number of Han people from the Central Plains who sought security. Consequently, these displaced individuals migrated to the Liao River basin under the protection of the Murong clan.
To effectively administer the growing influx of refugees and solidify their authority, the Murong clan took measures to establish local governance in the Liao River basin in 310. These governing bodies, known as qiaojun (Commandery of Migrants) and qiaoxian (County of Migrants), were tasked with overseeing and managing the refugee population. Under this system, “the people from Jizhou became residents of Jiyang Commandery, while those from Yuzhou became residents of Chengzhou Commandery. Similarly, those from Qingzhou became residents of Yingqiu Commandery, and those from Bingzhou became residents of Tangguo Commandery.”[5] As an incentive for the Han ethnic refugees to resettle, they were granted certain privileges, such as exemption from labor obligations. This generous policy further encouraged the migration to these newly established territories, resulting in a staggering increase in the refugee population, surpassing the original local inhabitants by more than tenfold.[ii]
After Murong Huang assumed the throne as the King of Yan, the Murong clan tightened their grip on Liaoxi. This consolidation led to changes in refugee policies. In 347, an edict was issued that abolished the refugee governments of Chengzhou, Jiyang, Yingqiu, and other commanderies. Instead, new counties were established to accommodate specific native populations: “Xingji County for Bohai natives, Ningji County for Hejian natives, Xingping County for Guangping and Wei Commandery natives, Yuli County for Donglai and Beihai natives and Wu County for Wu natives.”[6] This new system marked the end of preferential treatment for refugees, gradually increasing the burdens on this population.
The Han people who migrated to the Liaoxi region brought with them various production techniques, which played a decisive role in the improvement of agricultural production in Liaoxi. Recognizing the limited land and growing population, Murong Huang made the decision to open up previously reserved land such as gardens and pastures for cultivation by the refugees. He even lent them oxen for farming, implementing a system of exploitation where “80% go to the state, and 20% go to private ownership” for those without their own oxen, and “70% go to the state, and 30% go to private ownership” for those who had their own oxen but cultivated official land.
However, Feng Yu, the Records Officer and Army Adjutant under Huang, voiced his concerns, stating, “Although the Wei and Jin dynasties had imposed heavy burdens on the people, it did not exceed 70-80%. For those who owned official oxen and cultivated official land, 60% should be given to the state, with 40% remaining for the people. In the case of those who possessed private oxen but cultivated official land, the division should be equal between the state and the individuals. This arrangement would satisfy the people, and everyone would be content. However, I must emphasize that this is still not the path of a wise ruler, let alone an improvement upon it.”
Murong Huang heeded Feng Yu's counsel and promptly issued a decree, proclaiming, “All gardens and pastures should be abolished and redistributed among the landless. each impoverished individual devoid of resources shall be granted a single head of cattle. Furthermore, those desiring to employ state-owned cattle for cultivating official lands may do so in accordance with the regulations established during the Wei and Jin dynasties.”[7] Under this arrangement, the division of yields adhered to the 6-4 or 5-5 split, mirroring the principles of the military farming system.[iii]
At the same time, Murong Huang achieved a series of impressive conquests. First, he vanquished the Duan clan, seizing 5,000 households in the process. His forces then emerged victorious against Goguryeo, capturing a staggering 50,000 men and women. The Yuwen tribe was next to fall, with over 50,000 families being resettled in Changli[8]. Further conquests against Buyeo resulted in the capture of over 50,000 people. Further conquests against Buyeo saw the capture of another 50,000 individuals. In his campaign against Later Zhao, Murong Huang triumphantly captured over 30,000 households in the regions of You and Ji. These conquered populations, together with the Xianbei people under Murong's control, experienced a gradual shift from a nomadic existence to an agricultural-based economy. This transition played a pivotal role in the growth of the Murong regime in Liaoxi, fostering a sizeable population, supporting a formidable military, and facilitating the development of a relatively advanced culture.
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In 348, after Huang's death, his son Jun took control. He inherited a formidable army of over 200,000 troops. The agricultural advancements in the Liaoxi region further fortified his military might. Seizing the opportunity created by the power vacuum after Shi Hu’s death in 352, Jun launched a triumphant campaign against Ran Min, emerging victorious and proclaiming himself the Emperor of Yan. The capital was initially established in Ji City[9], but it was later relocated to Ye. This state was known as the Former Yan.
Former Yan's territory spanned a vast expanse, stretching from “the southern Ru and Ying rivers, to the eastern Qing and Qi regions, and reaching as far west as to the Xia and Min mountains. Its northern reach extended to the Yunzhong region.”[10] This extensive domain covered present-day regions including Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, and Shandong. It effectively shared control over the Yellow River basin with the Fu Qin regimes in Guanzhong.
Before the rise of the Murong clan, they publicly declared their allegiance to the Eastern Jin dynasty. The Jin regime, in turn, trusted their loyalty but remained suspicious of Ran Min, who had overthrown the Shi Zhao regime. The Jin regime opted not to intervene as Jun defeated Ran Min. Following his victory, Murong Jun declared himself emperor. Seeking to establish communication, the Jin regime sent envoys to Murong Jun, who firmly asserted his authority, declaring, “Tell your emperor that I have taken up the imperial title with the support of the Chinese people. I already reign as an emperor.”[11]
In his quest for conquest, Murong Jun implemented a policy of conscription and household inspections. His decree mandated that one able-bodied man remain in each household, while the rest were conscripted into the army. The goal was to amass a formidable force of 1.5 million soldiers, with the ultimate aim of subduing the Eastern Jin and Former Qin dynasties to achieve the unification of China. However, this ambitious plan was derailed by his untimely death in 360. His young son, Murong Wei, who was a mere eleven years old, ascended to the throne. To ensure stability, Murong Jun's brother, Prince Murong Ke of Taiyuan, stepped in as regent, with the assistance of Prince Murong Ping Shangyong[12] in the administration of state affairs. Consequently, from 360 until his death in 367, Murong Ke served as regent, maintaining a relatively stable political climate within the Former Yan dynasty.
Upon seizing power, Murong Ke found himself at odds with his Grand Tutor, Muyu Gen. Muyu Gen's proposal to relocate the capital to Longcheng sparked unrest and instability among the people. Exploiting this situation, Muyu Gen cunningly convinced Murong Ke to overthrow the young Murong Wei and declare himself emperor. Adding fuel to the fire, he falsely accused Murong Ke and his brother Murong Ping of treason, manipulating Empress Dowager Kezuhun and Murong Wei into believing his deceit. In a shocking turn of events, Muyu Gen even urged the imperial guards to execute Murong Ke and Murong Ping. Left with no alternative, Murong Ke was compelled to order the execution of Muyu Gen and his followers.
Murong Ke, though wielding significant political power, exhibited a strong inclination to seek counsel and guidance from his uncle, Ping, in all matters. He “avoided making isolated decisions. Furthermore, he treated his subordinates with humility, sought advice from wise individuals, and appointed them according to their abilities, ensuring that no one exceeded their rightful position. If any government official or courtier made a mistake, he did not shame them publicly but instead reassigned them appropriately, without causing a loss of dignity. Such an approach allowed individuals to reflect upon their actions, while also effectively deterred them from transgressing his principles.”[13]
Murong Ke, renowned for his political acumen, also displayed remarkable military command skills. In 365, he successfully recaptured Luoyang, which had briefly fallen back into the hands of the Eastern Jin dynasty. As a general, Murong Ke's leadership style was “characterized by a reliance on trust and benevolence rather than strict discipline or coercion. He prioritized overall strategic considerations and avoided issuing excessive and burdensome orders, ensuring the well-being and contentment of every soldier. Despite the relaxed appearance of his camps during peacetime, they remained highly vigilant and impervious to enemy approaches. Consequently, he never suffered defeat.”[14]
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[1] Present-day southwestern Yixian, Liaoning.
[2] Present-day Chaoyang, Liaoning.
[3] Wang Jun was a member of the Taiyuan Wang clan, son of Wang Shen.
[4] Records of Murong Hui & Biography of Gao Zhan, JS108
[5] Ibid.
[6] Records of Murong Huang, JS109
[7] Ibid.
[8] Now Chaoyang, Liaoning.
[9] Present-day Beijing.
[10] Zuyu, Gu, Essential Records of History and Geography (dushi fangyu jiyao读史方舆纪要)
[11] Records of Murong Jun, JS110
[12] Murong Ping was Murong Hui’s son and Murong Huang's younger brother.
[13] ZZTJ, 4th Year of Emperor Mu of Jin
[14] ZZTJ, 3rd Year of Emperor Ai of Jin
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[i] In the Records of Murong Hui (JS108):
General Lu Chang, the General who Conquests Barbarians, said to Hui, "Now, the two capitals have fallen [...] Langya (referring to Sima Rui) has assumed control in the east of the Yangtze River, which is, in fact, crucial for the lives of the people. Your Excellency, you dominate the seas and frontiers, yet some factions still cling to their military might without embracing the civilized path, as they do not recognize the authority of the king [...] It is proper to establish communication with Langya, encourage the acceptance of the grand order, and then proclaim the imperial decree to attack those who are guilty. Who would dare to refuse?" Murong agreed to this suggestion and dispatched his chief secretary Wang Ji to cross the sea and offer his support [...] [Emperor Yuan] conferred upon [Murong Hui] the titles of General and Chanyu.
[ii] In the Records of Murong Huang (JS109):
The people from the Nine Provinces, coming from distant lands, carried their belongings for thousands of li. They returned to their homeland like children seeking the embrace of their loving father. The number of refugees exceeded ten times the original population, and the population was dense while the land was limited. As a result, four out of every ten people had no land."
[iii] In the Records of Murong Huang (JS109):
[Huang] provided cattle for the poor families to cultivate land in Wanzhong. The state would collect 80% of the produce, while 20% would go to private ownership. For those who had cattle but no land, they could also cultivate land in the gardens. In this case, the state would collect 70%, and 30% would go to private ownership. The Records Officer under Huang, Feng Yu, objected and advised, "[...] the number of refugees exceeds ten times the original population, and the population is dense while the land is limited. Therefore, four out of every ten people have no land [...] Your Highness should expand the previous achievements [...] It is advisable to abolish the gardens and provide opportunities for the refugees. For those who lack assets upon arrival, grant them cattle. Once they become subjects of Your Highness, how could the cattle be lost? Moreover, even during the declining years of Wei and Jin, the burdens on the people were not as severe as 70-80%. For those who held official cattle and cultivated official land, 60% should to the state, and 40% to the people. For those who had private cattle but cultivated official land, the division was shared equally with the state. The people should be content with this arrangement, and everyone pleased. Yet, I still say that this is not the way of a wise king, let alone an improvement upon it [...]"
Upon reviewing Feng Yu's objection, Murong Huang stated, "[...] after considering the advice from Records Officer Feng, I, too, have concerns [...] The gardens and pastures should be abolished entirely and given to those who have no land. Those improvised with no assets and cannot sustain themselves shall be granted one cattle each. If there are those who have the ability and wish to take official cattle and cultivate official land, they may follow the old laws of Wei and Jin. The construction of canals and irrigation systems should be carried out by responsible officials who will make the most of the natural waterways and lands."