The ethnic minorities who ventured into China during the Wei and Jin periods found themselves engulfed in an abyss of despair. For some, the role of tenant thrust upon them, toiling under the watchful gaze of Han Chinese landlords. Others faced an even bleaker fate, as they were shackled by the chains of slavery, traded as commodities by the very Han elites tasked with governance.
The War of the Eight Princes painted an even darker tableau upon their lives. Against the backdrop of a famine ravaging Shanxi during the war, a gripping example emerged. Sima Teng, the Inspector of Bingzhou, found himself driven to desperate measures to satiate his hunger for military supplies. He turned to coercion, ensnaring the Xiongnu people within his ruthless clutches. These unfortunate captives were chained together and sold to distant regions like Shandong and Hebei.
Within the hearts of these ethnic minorities, anguish has been etched deeply, fueling the fires of resentment toward their ruling Han overlords. Their suffering embodied a double-edged blade, slicing through the fabric of society along both class and ethnic lines.
During the resistance against the oppressive yoke of the Western Jin dynasty, the Han Chinese people found themselves forging alliances with these ethnic minorities, united by a common quest for progress and justice. This grand tapestry of struggle encompassed not just their class aspirations, but also their national ones.
Yet, as the movement gained momentum and leadership began to fall into the hands of tribal chieftains, a disheartening shift took hold. Motivated by their own desires for dominance and the subjugation of those from different ethnic backgrounds, these chieftains sparked a flame of retaliation within their own people, leading to brutal acts against the Han Chinese population. The once-noble cause was dragged down into the depths of racial conflict, wrapping its tendrils around the attitudes and actions of the general populace. Even those who initially lacked conflicts among themselves were now entangled in a web of mutual animosity. As a result, the struggle took a step backward, veering away from its initial progressive ideals. The scourge of ethnic clashes grew in intensity, particularly during the tumultuous period surrounding the fall of the Shi Zhao dynasty, witnessing a surge in bloodshed between various ethnic groups.
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As the tribal chieftains ascended to power, they manipulated the brewing tensions between ethnic groups, harnessing these conflicts to solidify their own rule. A symbiotic relationship emerged between them and local aristocratic families in the Central Plains, driven by shared class interests. Their collaboration served as a mechanism that perpetuated the suppression of the Han Chinese population. It not only validated but expanded the political and economic privileges of the aristocracy, solidifying their hold on power. Thus, a distinct convergence occurred, melding the ruling classes of both the ethnic minorities and the Han into a single, exploitative force, with the Han Chinese bearing the brunt of their greed. This dynamic reaches its apex during the period encompassing Shi Zhao's reign through the establishment of the capital at Pingcheng during Northern Wei, where the merging of interests took on an even more pronounced character.
However, amidst the rise of ethnic minority aristocracies, the resistance and perseverance of the Han Chinese people remained unwavering. As various ethnic minorities spread further into the heartland, some of their elite members bore witness to the downfall of their once-mighty ruling regimes. Returning to their original homelands proved to be a daunting task, as these rulers found themselves stripped of their dominions and forced to bow down to a new order. Even for powerful tribes like the Xianbei Tuoba clan, whose political influence held firm for a time, the pervasive sway of the Central Plains' economy and culture led to an intensifying feudal society and the emergence of stark class divisions. Those who partook in the resistance movement no longer limited to the Han Chinese populace alone. Individuals from diverse ethnic backgrounds joined forces to challenge the ruling classes and nurture a growing sense of solidarity and shared aspirations.
As a result, ethnic barriers began to crumble, paving the way for a profound assimilation of different ethnicities. This transformative process unfolded primarily in the later years of the Northern Wei dynasty through the early years of the Sui dynasty. By the time peasant uprisings erupted towards the end of the Sui dynasty, ethnic conflicts had taken a backseat, allowing for a predominantly class-based struggle to take center stage.[i]
[i] See Changshou, Ma, The Northern Di and Xiongnu; Changru, Tang, The Nature of Rebellions by Various Ethnic Groups in the Northern Frontier During the Jin Period and the Rule of the Five Barbarians Regimes in China, as included in the collection of essays titled Discussions on the History of Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties.