After Liu Cong toppled the Western Jin dynasty, the Central Plains fell under the Xiongnu Han rule. Liu Cong introduced a strategic territorial system, dividing the land into left and right commanderies, tasked with governing over 200,000 households each. This move aimed to establish effective administration. To oversee the Han Chinese population, 43 neishi officials were appointed as provincial administrators.[1] It is worth noting that this territorial organization based on a decimal system had already been present within the Xiongnu tribes. According to Xiongnu Traditions (HS94), “from the Wise Kings of Left and Right down to the common households, the larger tribes consisted of over 10,000 cavalrymen, while the smaller ones numbered a few thousand.” In total, there were 24 chiefs, collectively known as wanqi or "ten thousand cavalrymen." These chiefs also appointed their own commanders of one thousand, one hundred, and ten, respectively. However, during this period, this organizational structure was primarily focused on military arrangements based on population and did not entail specific territorial demarcations.
To establish a more efficient governance structure, Liu Cong underwent a crucial transformation by adopting a geographical-based administrative system. This the advent of the qianhu (thousand households) and baihu (hundred households) divisions, denoting specific areas under control. The previous military rankings such as wanqi (ten thousand cavalrymen), qianfu (thousand men), baifu (hundred men) and shifu (ten men) were reimagined as local administrative officials with judicial and financial powers.
Besides the creation of the left and right commanderies to oversee the Han Chinese population under the authority of the Grand Chanyu, there were also left and right assistants in charge of the liuyi, or the "six barbarian tribes." Each of these tribe was roughly composed of ten thousand settlements, and one military commissar was appointed for every ten thousand[2]. The term liuyi encompassed the Hu (Xiongnu), Jie, Xianbei, Di, Qiang, and Ba-Di (although some sources exclude the Ba-Di). It is estimated that the Xiongnu dynasty had a total population of approximately three to four million during this period.
Within the Xiongnu dynasty, a distinctive system of governance was introduced, dividing administrative power between the Xiongnu and the Han. The Grand Chanyu, who functioned as a de facto vice king, played a pivotal role in this arrangement.
Prior to his death, Liu Yuan appointed his fourth son Liu Cong as the Grand Commander and Grand Chanyu, with authority over the Ministry of Personnel, and established the Chanyu Office in west Pingyang. Liu Cong commanded a military force of over 100,000 men. Upon Liu Cong's coronation, he bestowed the title of Crown Prince upon his younger brother, Ai. However, it was his own son, Liu Can, who held an iron grip on power, simultaneously taking on the roles of Prime Minister, Grand Chanyu, and Chief Councilor. This accumulation of titles effectively positioned Liu Can as the de facto vice king, overshadowing his uncle Ai. Furthermore, in the Guanzhong region, Liu Yao appointed his son, Prince Liu Yin of Nanyang, as Grand Commander and Grand Chanyu. He established the Chanyu Office in Wei City[3] and appointed nobles from Hu, Jie, Xianbei, Di, and Qiang to serve as the Left and Right Wise Kings, among other positions. This exemplifies the Xiongnu dynasty's approach to governance, as they implemented a policy of divided rule between the Xiongnu and Han.
Despite Liu Cong's nominal rule over the Central Plains, the persistent military conflicts gave rise to the rapid emergence of local separatist forces. In 311, Shi Le annexed Wang Mi by force, driven by his desire “to expand his dominion over Zhao and Wei.”[4] Following suit, in 315, Wang Mi's general Cao Yi captured over forty fortresses in the regions between Qi and Lu. As his forces grew to over 100,000, Cao Yi “harbored ambitions of controlling the entire region of Qi.”[5] Furthermore, the Xianbei forces gradually expanded their influence southward, spreading across the territories between Yan and Dai.
Liu Cong's rule was confined to a small portion of Shanxi province, while Liu Kun maintained control over the majority of the region. Furthermore, Liu Cong held sway over a portion of the Guanzhong area, where Liu Yao had established his base. Geographically, his territory "did not extend beyond Taihang Mountains in the east, the Song and Luo Rivers in the south, the Long and Chi Mountains in the west, and Fen and Jin Rivers in the north."[6]
Liu Cong's notorious penchant for alcohol and debauchery, coupled with the Xiongnu tribes' own corrupt and lavish ways of life, fostered a state of excessive opulence. Unfortunately, the incessant warfare that ravaged the region wreaked havoc on agricultural production, causing artificial famines to ensue. The city of Pingyang, Liu Cong's capital, suffered a harrowing famine that brought forth a cataclysmic toll on its inhabitants. Historical records indicate that a staggering half of the city’s population - roughly five to six out of every ten people - either perished or fled.[7] Around 200,000 households in the Commandery of Sili embarked on an exodus, seeking refuge within the territory controlled by Shi Le. Not only that, but over 30,000 horsemen from the Commandery of Right Sili, along with their families, fled to the guerrilla zones of the Eastern Jin. These events serve as a stark glimpse into the intensifying and urgent class conflict brewing within the Xiongnu domain.
In 318, after the passing of Liu Cong, the crown prince Liu Can ascended to the throne. Regrettably, this transition of power was overshadowed by a tragic incident: Liu Can fell victim to an assassination carried out by a Xiongnu nobleman named Jin Zhun. In a ruthless act, Zhun orchestrated a massacre of all members of the Liu clan in Pingyang. Exploiting this chaos, he declared himself the Heavenly King of Han.
Upon receiving the news of the coup d’état, Liu Cong's cousin, Liu Yao, who was residing in Chang'an, took decisive action. He proclaimed himself Emperor and mobilized his troops towards Pingyang. In a resounding victory, Liu Yao's forces successfully crushed the Jin clan, effectively eradicating them. Subsequently, Liu Yao relocated the capital to Chang'an and renamed the state as Zhao.[8] As the power dynamics shifted, the regions east of Pingyang and Luoyang fell under the control of Shi Le. This development further shaped the political landscape of the time, as the power balance between the newly established Former Zhao state and Shi Le's domain (known as Later Zhao) began to take form.
In the subsequent years, the Guanzhong region was struck by a devastating epidemic that resulted in a staggering death toll, claiming the lives of three to four out of every ten individuals.[i] This catastrophic event prompted Liu Yao to repopulate the city of Chang'an. To accomplish this task, Liu Yao orchestrated the relocation of over 200,000 households belonging to the Di and Qiang tribes from Shangjun. He also facilitated the migration of more than 10,000 households from the Longyou region. In a notable move, he relocated over 10,000 households from the esteemed Yang and Jiang clans of Qinzhou to Chang'an.
During the zenith of his rule, Liu Yao commanded an impressive army of 285,000 soldiers. When his troops marched out, "their formations stretched along the river for over a hundred li. The resounding sound of drums and bells reverberated, shaking the earth and river in a manner unparalleled in the annals of military history."[9] Such a formidable display of military might ensure the submission of all the Di and Qiang tribes in the Guanzhong region under his rule.
In 325, Liu Yao issued a command for his cousin, Prince Liu Yue of Zhongshan, to lead a force of 15,000 soldiers in a siege of the Later Zhao general, Shi Sheng, in the Jinyong City of Luoyang. In response, Shi Le dispatched his cousin, Shi Hu, at the head of an army consisting of 40,000 infantry and cavalry troops to rescue Shi Sheng. The clash between Liu Yue and Shi Hu took place on the western bank of the Luo River. Liu Yue's troops were defeated and forced to retreat to the Shiliang Garrison on the northern bank of the Luo River. Seizing the advantage, Shi Hu proceeded to lay siege to Shiliang, cutting off its supply lines. This dire situation led to a state of desperation within Liu Yue's ranks, with his soldiers resorting to the drastic measure of killing horses for sustenance.
Unauthorized duplication: this narrative has been taken without consent. Report sightings.
To salvage the situation, Liu Yao personally led a sizeable army to rescue Liu Yue and stationed them in Jingu.[10] However, during the night, an inexplicable disturbance erupted from within Liu Yao's own forces, causing chaos and the subsequent dispersal of his soldiers. Forced to retreat, Liu Yao's army fell back to Mianchi.[11] The disturbances recurred during the night, which led Liu Yao to ultimately withdraw to Chang'an. Shortly after, Shi Hu captured the Shiliang Garrison and took Liu Yue alive, along with his generals and over eighty officials. More than 3,000 Di and Qiang people were also taken captive. Shi Hu ordered the execution 9,000 soldiers. This incident exemplifies the lack of discipline and fighting spirit within Liu Yao's army, as revealed by the inexplicable disturbances and subsequent disarray that plagued their ranks during nighttime.
In 328, Shi Le issued an order for Shi Hu to lead a force of 40,000 soldiers in a western campaign from Zhi Pass,[12] with the intent to attack Puban.[13] Meanwhile, Liu Yao took personal command of elite forces by land and water from Tong Pass to provide reinforcements. Shi Hu was forced to retreat, and Liu Yao pursued him all the way to Gaohouyuan,[14] where a major defeat was inflicted upon Shi Hu. The battlefield was left strewn with the corpses of fallen soldiers stretching over 200 li, and a great number of spoils were captured.[15] Shi Hu managed to escape to Zhaoge,[16] while Liu Yao proceeded to cross the Dayang Pass[17] and lay siege to Shi Sheng in the Jinyong City of Luoyang. The subsequent surrender of Yin Ju, the Administrator of Xingyang,[18] and Zhang Jin, the Administrator of Yewang,[19] sent shockwaves through the capital of the Later Zhao, Xiangguo.
Recognizing the gravity of the situation, Shi Le believed that if Luoyang were to fall into Liu Yao's hands, his next move would likely be an invasion of Hebei. He found it necessary to dispatch troops to rescue Luoyang. He made three strategic assessments of Liu Yao's military actions: "If Liu Yao gathers his forces at Chenggao Pass,[20] it would be the best scenario for him. If he blocks the Luo River,[21] it would be the second-best scenario. If he remains stationary and defends Luoyang, it would be equivalent to being captured."[22] In the 12th Month, Shi Le assembled a force of 60,000 infantry and 27,000 cavalries at Chenggao. They crossed the Luo River from Gong County and advanced to the outskirts of Luoyang.
Upon learning of Shi Le's personal involvement in the defense of Luoyang, Liu Yao swiftly withdrew his troops from the siege of Jinyong City. He strategically positioned his massive army, consisting of more than 100,000 soldiers, to the west of Luoyang, spanning 10 li from north to south. In response, Shi Le led a force of 40,000 infantry and cavalry into Luoyang. On the decisive day of battle, the Later Zhao forces outside the city executed Shi Hu's strategic plan. 30,000 infantries moved from the north of Luoyang towards the west to attack Liu Yao's center. Simultaneously, Shi Kan and Shi Cong led 8,000 cavalry each, advancing from the west of Luoyang towards the north to strike Liu Yao's vanguard. The clash between the two armies took place outside Xuanyang Gate.[23]
During the battle, Shi Le personally commanded the main forces of the Later Zhao army, encircling Liu Yao's troops as they emerged from Changhe Gate.[24] It is worth noting that Liu Yao, like many Xiongnu nobles, had a penchant for alcohol. On this fateful day, he arrived at the battle inebriated after consuming a considerable amount of alcohol. As described in historical accounts, "From a young age, he indulged in alcohol, and in his later years, it became even worse. When Le arrived, Yao prepared for battle while drinking several dou of alcohol [...] By the time he went out, he drank over a dou of alcohol again."[25] By the time they reached Xiyang Gate, Liu Yao was heavily intoxicated and unable to engage in combat.
The Later Zhao army capitalized on the opportunity and launched a surprise attack. The Former Zhao forces began to crumble under the onslaught. In a hasty retreat, Liu Yao, in his drunken state, lost control and tumbled into a ditch. Thereupon, he found himself sprawled on the icy ground, enduring more than ten wounds. This unfortunate turn of events led to his capture by Shi Kan. The resounding victory belonged to Shi Le, as over 50,000 enemy soldiers fell by the blade.
Liu Yao's defeat marked the beginning of a tragic downfall. His reign abruptly ended with his execution. His sons, such as Liu Xi, Liu Yin, and others, abandoned Chang'an and sought refuge in Shanggui.[26]
Yet, their sanctuary was short-lived. In the subsequent year of 329, during the 9th Month, the Later Zhao forces captured Shanggui. This assault claimed the life of Crown Prince Xi, along with the loss of over 3,000 princes, dukes, officials, and lower-ranking officers.
In Luoyang, princes, dukes, officials, literati, and even refugees fell victim to a sweeping purge, with over 5,000 lives extinguished. No one was spared, not even prominent clans. The conquerors displaced over 9,000 souls to the confines of Xiangguo.
With these momentous events, the Former Zhao dynasty came to an end. Spanning from Liu Yuan's rise as the King of Han to the downfall of Liu Xi, this kingdom persisted for twenty-six years. (304-329).
----------------------------------------
[1] Records of Liu Cong, JS102
[2] Ibid.
[3] Now Xianyang, Shaanxi.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Zuyu, Gu, Essential Records of History and Geography (读史方舆纪要)
[7] Records of Liu Cong, JS102
[8] The state renamed to Zhao by Liu Yao is referred to as Former Zhao in historical records to distinguish it from Shi Le’s Later Zhao state.
[9] Records of Liu Yao, JS103
[10] Now northwest of Luoyang, Henan.
[11] Now west of Mianchi, Henan.
[12] 15 li northwest of Jiyuan, Henan.
[13] Now Puzhou Town, Yongji, Shanxi.
[14] Now north of Wenxi, Shanxi.
[15] Records of Liu Yao, JS103
[16] Now Qi County, Henan.
[17] Now Maojindu, Pinglu, Henan.
[18] With its capital at Xingyang, now northwest of Zhengzhou, Henan.
[19] With its capital at Yewang, now Qinyang, Henan.
[20] Now northwest of Xingyang, Henan.
[21] Now Gongyi's section of the Luo River.
[22] 3rd Year of Xianhe of Emperor Cheng of Jin, ZZTJ
[23] The first gate on the south side of the western area of Luoyang.
[24] The northern gate on the western side of Luoyang.
[25] Records of Liu Yao, JS103
[26] Now Tianshui, Gansu.
----------------------------------------
[i] In Biography of Liu Yao (JS103):
In the 3rd year [of Taixing] (320 CE), [...] [Liu] Yue, the Prince of Guangping, was appointed as the Grand General for Conquering the East and stationed in Luoyang. However, there was a severe epidemic among the three armies [...] [In the 1st year of Yongchang] (322 CE), [Liu] Yao launched an attack on Qiuchi [...] with the simultaneous outbreak of a severe epidemic (as recorded in ZZTJ as "a major epidemic in the army") [...] The epidemic spread widely, resulting in the deaths of three to four out of ten people.