Living beings have different numbers of cells with different numbers of chromosomes in different sizes and shapes and with different numbers of genes.
An adult human consists of 10 trillion to 100 trillion cells. This extreme range does not depend on the mass of a person, but comes from different approaches to calculation. 37 trillion is a solid figure if you want to have one. At any given time, a healthy man has well over 100 million sperm cells available. A woman has around 6 million undeveloped egg cells as a fetus, then only 1-2 million at birth, then only around 300 thousand at puberty. The number continues to decrease, but remains sufficient. Mature egg cells are the largest cells in the human body. A mature human egg cell can be recognized by a human being with the naked eye.
A human has 23 chromosome pairs, i.e. 46 chromosomes.
An axolotl has 14 chromosome pairs, i.e. 28 chromosomes.
A brazzofish has 28 pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 56 chromosomes.
In humans, the 23rd pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes. In women it is called XX. In men it is called XY. The Y chromosome contains information on male characteristics that women do not have. Men suffer more from hereditary diseases, such as hemophilia, because the 23rd X chromosome is only present once.
The sex chromosomes are not always XX and XY. In birds they are ZW and ZZ. In some insects they are called XX and XO, where O stands for the absence of a chromosome.
Not all living beings with two sexes have sex chromosomes. For example, in some reptiles, sex is determined by the temperature at which the eggs hatch. Assuming that in a lizard, virgin birth is optional and the females have a higher chance of survival at cool temperatures, then it is advantageous if more females hatch at cool temperatures. These lizards can adapt to temperature fluctuations, but could die out if it gets very warm very quickly for a long time.
Not all living beings have pairs of chromosomes. Some living beings only have one set, such as many fungi, some algae and some unicellular organisms. Some living beings have more than two sets, such as many plants, some amphibians and some fish. In these cases, the number of chromosomes ranges from three to twelve, with all the higher ones tending to be plants. The advantage is that the blueprints can be followed several times at the same time. The disadvantage is that more DNA requires for replication and repair more resources, more energy and more time.
A human has 3.0 billion base pairs and 20-25 thousand genes.
An axolotl has 32 billion base pairs and 20-25 thousand genes.
A brazzofish has 90 billion base pairs and 30-40 thousand genes.
As you can see, the brazzofish is a superior being that is more complex than humans. - But not necessarily.
An onion has 15 billion base pairs and 59 thousand genes. An onion is a complex living being. An onion is a complex living being. An onion is a complex living being. But the amount of information does not automatically make something more complex, as you can see. The fish swims through the leaves and sometimes the stallion goes diving with his mare. But a lot of information can also be useless, as you can see. Yus ioz Otantriball ban ban Ruren. But reading information can also be a waste of time, as you can see.
DNA is divided into coded DNA and uncoded DNA. Encoded DNA is the relevant genetic information. Uncoded DNA is something different. It is estimated that only 5% of a person's DNA is coded DNA. What the rest is for is controversial. Uncoded DNA contributes to stability and regulation, but not much more is known. It could fulfill other important tasks that are not yet clear. It could be quite useless. There have been experiments with animals where large parts of uncoded DNA have been removed from germ cells, resulting in no noticeable difference in the animals. It could be dead weight. As already mentioned, more DNA also costs more resources, more energy and more time. Finally, it could also be unused space for future evolution, but then it would really be dead weight, since the amount of DNA can change, as can be seen from the fact that living beings have different amounts.
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Bacteria and archaea are simple living beings consisting of just one cell. They have no cell nucleus and no chromosomes. The DNA lies in the cell as a tangled ring and can also be contained several times, because when the cell wants to divide, the DNA ring is replicated in the cell. During division, both cells take one of the DNA rings with them. This type of cell division is called binary fission. Bacteria and archaea can often multiply quickly because their cells have only 5-20% uncoded DNA and sometimes less than 2000 genes.
The effect of the different DNA is manifested in the speed of cell division, i.e. in the cell cycle. In plants, it can take days to weeks. In many mammals, it takes around 24 hours for most cells, but sometimes months for egg cells. In fungi it sometimes takes less than 6 hours. In bacteria and archaea, only minutes to hours.
Cells recognize other cells. Cells have receptors that bind receptors or ligands. Receptors are locks and keys. Ligands are only keys. Receptors are on the cell membrane or in the cell, but ligands can also be loose. A key opens a lock. The interaction leads to a reaction in the cell. The receptor for insulin binds the ligand insulin, whereupon the cell begins to absorb glucose in the form of glycogen as an energy source, would be an example. The protein insulin is a hormone and every hormone is a messenger and every messenger is a ligand, but not all ligands are messengers and not all messengers are hormones and not every hormone is a protein. Receptors and ligands can be proteins, but they don't have to be. Cells are complex. Many other molecules can also take on these roles, such as nitric oxide, to name just one example.
A mature egg cell attracts sperm to itself via messenger substances. The egg cell releases the messenger substances and the messenger substances reach the sperm via liquids, provided there are any. The sperm recognize the messenger substance with the help of receptors. The messenger substance is like an advertising leaflet in the sea. The sperm cells will swim in the direction from where they come. In the end, they usually reach the egg cell. Sperm and egg cells each have a protein as a receptor. Both proteins fit together. If the proteins do not match, then the sperm may be traveling inside the wrong living being. Normally, the sperm cells have the key for the egg cell's lock. The egg cell only lets one inside. The surface of the egg changes within seconds and the other sperm are rejected. The egg cell is fertilized. The initial cell of a new body is formed.
There may be deviations. There may be more eggs ready for fertilization than there should have been. There will be fraternal twins or multiples. In essence, fraternal twins are just siblings who are born at the same time. In quite a few mammals, fraternal multiples are the norm, as in cats and dogs. The germ may divide within the first few days. The result is identical twins to multiples. Identical twins are genetically almost identical to identical and have the same sex. But mistakes do occur. If the sex chromosomes were XY, then the Y can be lost under certain circumstances, which means that even identical twins can have different sexes in rare cases. Other errors can also occur. The division of the germ could be incomplete. In this case, the result will be conjoined twins or multiples.
Egg cells have certain receptors, use certain messenger substances, have certain barrier molecules, have a certain pH value and are protected by immune cells so that the wrong sperm cannot fertilize them. But mistakes do occur. In close species, the differences may be so small that it still happens. If the genes do not match, the result could be nonsense. The DNA could become faulty. The cells could not function properly or kill themselves. The cells could be attacked by the mother's immune cells or even by their own immune cells. But the living being could also grow up normally. The errors in the DNA could lead to physical impairments and/or infertility, as with offspring from sheep and goats. If the parents were similar enough, there could be no problems, as is the case with snow hares and brown hares.
DNA is not unique. Offspring can be clones of the mother or have a twin. Nevertheless, DNA is unique enough that it can be assigned to an individual apart from the exceptions. But that could change. Theoretically, you could encode the DNA of a living being as numbers and then use the numbers to produce artificial cells with this DNA as often as you like. The DNA would always be the same. The most striking thing about the artificial cells would be that the DNA would have too few errors or that these errors would be too systematic.
DNA is not yet well understood. Although research is being carried out, it is a lengthy process that has so far yielded very little knowledge.
Not all beings have DNA. Some viruses only have ribonucleic acid or RNA. Some soft-bodied beings have alionucleic acid or ANA. Pure spirits and illusory beings have no cells.
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