The United States of America in the Early 19th Century

Historical Essay by Ahsewerun Jackson, 1992

"...Historically speaking, the 1810s was one of the most progressive and prosperous eras of American history. The United States enjoyed several periods of rapid economic and political growth (which includes the 1840's and the 1880's in the 19th century), though the 1810s was a "glimpse" of things to come. Indeed, the 1810s was considered the height of the "Romanticism Era" that came in the aftermath of the Second Great Awakening. The era of Romanticism was able to emerge and grow due to the economic prosperity America enjoyed during this time period...

The average life of an American citizen improved significantly during the 1810s. Under the Hamilton Presidency and the Jackson Presidency, both of which enjoyed widespread popular support and a strong economy, numerous social and economic programs were implemented to help the daily lives of nearly every American. In 1811, President Hamilton implemented the National Grain Emergency Stockpile. Through the stockpile, the federal government purchased grain from farmers, helping poor farmers sell their products at a consistent price and allowing the government to use said stockpile to feed the poor and homeless. The National Grain Emergency Stockpile also allowed America to avoid the fallouts of the Year Without a Summer (1816), which saw crop failures across the northern United States and Europe. The stockpile prevented thousands of Americans from outright starving and a relief bill passed by Congress in 1817 helped small farmers, communes, and cooperatives back on their feet. This move bolstered the federal government's popularity, as many Americans increasingly saw it as a beacon of stability and leadership. In addition to this, President Jackson created the Farming Cooperative Commission in 1813 (under the Department of Agriculture) to lend out the most advanced farming equipment to relatively poor farmers for them to increase their yields and profit. The FCC was met with widespread success. The agricultural sector of the nation (which was benefitting from imports of various animal/plant species, a cooperative government, improved infrastructure, and better farming tools/theories) expanded as fast as the industrial sector. This era of prosperity allowed many Americans in rural areas to contribute to the growing cultural and political movements across the United States...

As for the industrial sector, the introduction of the steam locomotive and the telegraph greatly improved transportation and communication respectively. The steam locomotive, which was officially "finalized" in 1814, allowed raw materials and finished goods to travel across the nation at a quickened pace. Meanwhile, the telegraph opened up paths for businesses to hold multiple branch locations throughout the nation and improved the logistics of production and transportation. Additionally, with ARPA focusing more on the betterment of industrial technology, factories saw increased production and efficiency, which led to the United States catching up to Britain in terms of industrial capacity by 1820. Under the Hamilton Presidency, anti-monopoly bills were created to increase economic diversity and competition, which forced various businesses and industries to offer better working conditions and pay to skilled and unskilled workers. While President Jackson did contribute to the improvement of workers' conditions, he did stimulate the growth of the railroads and the telegraphs, which in turn, created additional prosperity for businesses and created more work in the industrial sector. As such, the urban areas enjoyed the fruits of industrialization and created a humming middle class that played a part in the Romanticism Era...

The exact beginning of the Romanticism Era is still debated to this day. However, many historians acknowledge that the Romanticism Era took off after President Kim's book, "Against All Odds," was published in 1813. The book mirrored certain events of the Venezuelan Revolution, which began in 1803, but was different in many regards. For one, the plot of the book described an island colony revolting against its colonial master after a series of brutal polices which saw the decimation of much of the island's population. Most of the subjects of the island were natives that were conquered by the colonial empire, which was only named "the Empire" throughout the book. Even as the Empire continually destroyed entire settlements and killed hundreds of the "Island," the rebels continued forward and held onto their hopes of a free and equal nation that was no longer a subject of the Empire. There was no happy ending for the people of the Island, as the Empire opted to destroy the entire island before revolutionary sentiments spread throughout the rest of its colonies. Thus, the final scene of the book revealed the final hundred or so rebels being mercilessly gunned down by the soldiers of the Empire, with the last living rebel dropping dead with a book of the planned Constitution of the Island.

The book raised several questions throughout the United States. One of the most notable questions was, "What was the point of the book?" President Kim, to his dying days, never revealed the true intentions behind the book. This left the American people to interpret the book and draw conclusions on their own. Some saw it as an America "that might have been" if it had lost the Revolutionary War. However, many saw it as a warning. Many more believed that the book was describing the unsuccessful uprisings in Jamaica and Ireland, and was alluding to the fact that many colonies were unlike the United States (which was blessed with talented leaders, a unified revolutionary movement, foreign funding, and numerous benefactors throughout the Revolutionary War). Some colonies, despite their zeal for independence and equality, were not capable enough to seize independence on their own. The fact that the Island was cut off from the rest of the world and lacked any support abroad served as proof that even a well-motivated rebellion could fall apart without aid from elsewhere (especially if the colony was small or lacked the base to oust the colonial government). The fact that various revolutions were springing up at the time did not go unnoticed by many of these believers. This book was the most influential American book in the early 19th century, as America began to turn its eyes towards the various independence movements that sprung up in the Spanish Empire...

As more and more colonies declared their independence and fought against their former colonial overlords (especially within the Spanish Empire), the American public increasingly became aware that the United States was able to determine the outcome of each and every rebellion across the Americas. As the United States was the beacon of liberty and republicanism, the American people believed that supporting "freedom fighters," especially republican rebels, was an "American duty, which was given to us by God himself" (as one Baptist Minister claimed). President Kim's book greatly facilitated this belief, as many Americans viewed President Kim as the "Father of the United States," whose words could sway public opinion without any difficulty. Thus, in a single stroke, the Era of Romanticism began, which portrayed the people fighting against their colonial administrators as "greater than life figures, who saw the American Dream and decided to create it within their own homelands."

The Romanticism Era ushered in an age of books and theaters that focused vividly on the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the revolutions across the Americas. Authors portrayed the revolutions as a "black and white affair," creating a struggle between "good and evil," "tyranny and freedom." Many popular works came from writers in New England, Quebec, and the South, which suffered the brunt of the damages caused during the Revolutionary War. Playrights produced plays that emphasized the "romantic aspects" of the revolutions, avoiding the destructive nature of the revolutions and focusing solely on the struggle for independence and for liberty. The headlines of major newspapers constantly reported on the status of the revolution in the Americas, portraying revolutionaries such as Miranda, Guerrero, and Bolivar as the "reincarnations of Washington himself." Even religious denominations claimed that the United States was to "manifest its destiny to spread the joys of republicanism and liberty across the Americas." This growth of Romanticism led to hundreds of wealthy Americans privately funding revolutionaries abroad, which helped Venezuelan and Mexican revolutionaries to achieve early successes before the American government began to fund the rebellions on its own...

President Jackson himself was not immune to this Romanticism wave. In fact, Romanticism greatly affected the public's perception of Native Americans. "Against All Odds" made the United States review its long-standing conflict with the Sioux Nation and many saw the similarities between the United States and the Empire were distressing. Additionally, the rise of Romanticism created a favorable impression of Native Americans (as "noble warriors that fought alongside the revolutionaries") that led to the American public demanding for an end to the brutal conflict between the United States (the Empire) and the American Indians (the Island). Although the Sioux Nation remained a mystery to most, the Indian nation's war against America was seen as a valiant struggle for independence and fair treatment. After the Louisiana Purchase of 1818, President Jackson paved a peace deal with the Sioux Nation riding on the public's sentiment for a "just" peace. Jackson himself was a fighter for Native American rights and was already content with giving the Sioux Nation a just peace treaty. As such, the Treaty of Otowahetaka guaranteed the Native tribes within the Sioux nation autonomy and near independence within the United States. Much like their brethren to the east, the Native tribes of Sioux formed the Lakota Territory (which was still considered "American" by outside observers) and acquired lands to form their own communities within Lakota. Under the terms of the Treaty of Otowahetaka (which would be the basis of future "Western Indian Treaties"), each tribe member in the Lakota Territory received 100 acres of land (which could be used by the recipients, be used as a communal farm, rented out, or sold). 50 additional acres were granted to each head of household and/or adult male. The tribes would ultimately decide how the land was dispersed, but the land needed to be granted in someone's name, or it would default back to the American government. This task was handled by the Department of Federal Lands and Resources (which was called the "Native American Land Commission"). Additionally, each tribe was granted 100 acres per cultural and sacred site they wished to preserve. A committee from the Department of Federal Lands and Resources would also decide if the sites were, indeed, sacred or cultural to the Native tribes (which was formally called the Native American Diplomacy Committee). The Committee was composed of Native Americans from the eastern states, along with American citizens with doctorates in Native Studies. In both cases, each agency was expected to carry out their tasks as fairly as possible. In terms of the NAPC, the agency also consisted of a tribunal that would oversee any territorial or labeling conflicts between the commissioners of the NAPC and the Native tribes. The Secretary of Federal Lands and Resources also held powers to veto or overturn any decisions made by the NAPC, but if the Native tribes felt the "final" ruling was unfavorable to them, then they were able to bring the case to the Supreme Court. Finally, the Tribes would also receive the benefits that many American citizens enjoyed, in that they were able to rent out advanced tools for farming, purchase firearms (at a discounted price) from the federal government, utilize the court systems for grievances, receive education in schools built by the federal government, and more. All in all, it allowed for the Native tribes to act independently from the American government (many tribes banded together and created their own governments and "nations" within the Lakota territory), while providing a way for the United States to avoid "rolling over" any Native American tribes in their trek to the Pacific Coast (which was inevitable after the passage of the Homestead Act of 1819)..."

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"... The average life of a farmer in the United States during the early 19th century greatly differed depending on the state the farmer resided in. For example, a farmer in the state of Quebec was most likely a Catholic that enjoyed the fruits of industrialization and was able to pay for the best farming equipment for relatively cheap cost due to his close proximity to the industrial centers of Quebec City and Montreal. Additionally, the Quebecois farmer was, most likely, a member of a large farming cooperative (upwards to 10,000 members) that had been in place for several decades and generally made decent profits due to the nearby urban centers in Quebec and the New England states, along with the Erie Canal and other waterworks to rapidly transit his harvests to various markets. Meanwhile, a farmer in Illinois was much further away from the factories of the east coast and thus, relied on the FCC for the newest farming equipment. He was probably a member of a much smaller farming cooperative (that averaged around 100 to 200 members) and made only a small profit because he was in a western state. Despite the improvements to infrastructure, farmers in the western states struggled to make large amounts of profit as shipping fresh grain and foodstuff to the more populated eastern states was difficult, which was why many farmers in the west relied on fermented grain mash in the form of whiskey to sell to the east (this was before the introduction of the steam locomotive, which allowed grain and other agricultural goods to be shipped across the entirety of the United States within days, instead of weeks).

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By the year 1820, there were approximately 17,000 farming cooperatives and nearly a thousand farming communes across the United States. Cooperatives were generally utilized by immigrants and non-Native American citizens to establish themselves in the farming community and to receive assistance to build up their farms before they became profitable. Meanwhile, Native Americans generally favored communes, where their harvests contributed to the benefit of their tribes and their states (nearly 90% of Native Americans lived in the states of Iroquois, Hisigi, Akansa, and Ankigama or in the territory of Lakota)...

On the flip side, Americans that lived in cities and towns (which was about 15% of the population) had many more opportunities and job choices available to them. Most major cities had federal primary schools for children to attend. These schools were not mandatory but highly encouraged (to the point that 85% of all children that lived in urban areas attended nearby primary schools, compared to 20% of children from rural areas). Primary schools were handled both by the local state government and the Department of Education. The Department of Education provided basic "templates" for textbooks (which included necessary information that the Department expected all students to learn), which was then filled out by state governments to attend to their own needs. For example, the Department of Education provided a "basic" textbook for history, which was filled with information on the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the presidencies of the first four presidents, while the state governments filled the rest of the textbook with history of their respective states, along with important historical figures from said states. So each student in the federal primary schools was taught by the federal government and the state government at the same time (though, some additions made into textbooks by the state were reviewed by the federal government). These schools provided lessons on English, General Science, History, Life Skills, Government and Politics, and General Mathematics, which allowed many young children to receive an education that was considered advanced by other nations. By the time a child in urban areas reached eighteen years old, they were met with a variety of job opportunities...

Federal universities (and other state and private universities) were usually the main choices for many young adults (statistics reveal that nearly 35% of students that attended a primary school went onto universities). Universities gave students an opportunity to obtain doctorates, which were utilized to further their careers in specific fields. It was also an ensured way to success, as many federal agencies and businesses looked out for those with doctorate degrees for well-paying positions. Immigrants, minorities, and women saw the universities as the gateways to a better life and with the federal universities being relatively low-cost and even free for excellent students, thousands of new students entered them yearly. Students from well-off families attended private universities, though some entered federal universities as well. This created a highly educated middle class in urban areas and many experts in various fields of science, math, history, and engineering that significantly contributed to the development of the United States. Especially since many graduates entered the government as specialists (by 1820, the United States had nearly 300,000 federal workers, due to the expansion of the federal government and the creation of new agencies). ARPA was the most popular choice for those with science and engineering degrees, though the government also employed those with other degrees for other roles...

Those that did not attend federal universities usually took over their family's business or trade or entered the working class. With a strong economy that was only hindered briefly during the Panic of 1797, many Americans that did not work for an advanced education enjoyed economic success as well. Industrialization offered jobs for people even without an educational background, such as factory jobs, shipbuilding, trade, and more. With anti-monopoly policies set in place, workers enjoyed a period of growing wages and safety measures (placed by Congress) that allowed them to prosper in their own way...

For Americans that were unemployed, homeless, or very poor, the government introduced a number of social programs to ease their burdens. The first soup kitchens were created under President Jackson, which allowed the poor to receive at least two meals a day (paid for by the federal government). Homeless shelters were built, which provided an opportunity for those neglected by society to earn an education and enter the workforce. Orphanages sprung up under President Hamilton, which gave thousands of orphans in the United States to rise to success despite their background. Overall, the early 19th century saw the development of the American Dream proclaimed by President Kim; that any American, regardless of wealth, color, background, or sex, could achieve success and even become the nation's leader. This Dream was further reinforced by Eliyah Peters, the Seventh President of the United States, an African American man whose parents were former slaves in Georgia...

As seen by previous statements, the early 19th century created the first "modern" social hierarchy that is evident today: the "rich," the "middle class," the "working class," and the "poor." This was a very generalized statement of the classes of the United States during the time period, but this period provided a glimpse of the social hierarchy that would be widespread in the future...

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"... In the early 19th century, there was no unifying "American" culture that is seen today. Some could argue that modern American culture is still divided by regionalism, but this was especially evident during the Romanticism Era of the United States. In fact, "American" culture would not be developed until the outbreak of the Anglo-American War, which forced the nation to rally behind the American flag and brought the nation closer together than ever before...

One common aspect that was spread out throughout the United States was the existence of "town hall meetings." Created under President Jefferson, most cities and towns (along with many villages) had a meeting place for nearby inhabitants to gather and debate on political issues (this meeting place was usually maintained by the state government). Generally, most of these political debates took on a Tuesday, though each region of the United States (which I will cover in the next paragraph) differed on how each meeting took place...

In the New England areas, the town hall meetings were preceded by a large feast (as in the New England states, the meetings were generally held before dinner time). People would use the meetings as a time to socialize and enjoy food before settling into the (often) heated debates about politics. In the South, the town hall meetings were often held after a cooperative farm meeting, followed by the actual town hall meeting and then lunch and prayer. In the Canadien states, meeting-goers attended a mandatory "town prayer" (due to the prevalence of Catholicism in the Canadien areas). And so on.

These differences represented the difference in culture between the states before the Anglo-American War. The New England areas were the most liberal of all parts of the United States (owing to the fact that it was the most diverse area in terms of demographics). The nexus of immigrants and various cultures, New England was heavily influenced by multiple cultures, which all unified to form the New England Culture. In particular, Chinese and Korean cultures mixed with European cultures to create an interesting cultural dynamic that was unseen in the rest of the world. Rice became a staple for many households, even non-Asian ones, and community fellowship created close and friendly communities even in the growing cities of New York and Boston. New Englanders enjoyed tea more than the rest of the colony and the "restaurant culture" that started to emerge after the introduction of "Ko-Am" by President Kim. Additionally, New Englanders were generally more attuned to "foreign" cultures and often took the best of each one to add to their own. As a result, Americans from New England were much more friendly to strangers, accepted new ideas more quickly, and generally seen as the bastion of progress in the (already liberal) United States. It was no surprise that many of the "fusion" foods that would grow to symbolize American diversity (such as bulgogi rice burgers, Vietnamese meat sandwiches, Haitian-Chinese stews, and curry) originated from New England...

The Canadien states were a striking contrast to the New England states, in that the majority of immigrants that settled in the area were that of French descent. Heavily Catholic and conservative, the Canadiens were surprisingly progressive in terms of women's rights and democracy. However, Canadiens were fairly hostile to non-French immigrants and were generally unfriendly to outsiders. The only significant minority within the French-dominated states of Ontario and Quebec (which would be split to Montreal and Quebec in 1826) was the black population, which mainly consisted of former slaves from French colonies in the Caribbean. As such, even they were considered Canadien to many (and were generally accepted as such by locals). The black population of the Canadien states was focused mainly around Toronto and the southern Ontario Peninsula, which meant that most Canadiens never saw a non-Canadien throughout their lives. In fact, many rural Canadiens were unable to speak English and exclusively spoke Quebecois French (also called Canadien French). A census in 1830 revealed that only 40% of Canadiens were able to speak English, though that never became a huge issue as Canadiens elected into the federal government were able to speak English and most government forms/ballots were written down in Quebecois French. Despite their close proximity to one another, New England and Canada were extremely different...

At the same time, the South was somewhat a mix of the two. The South was dominated by two, equally prosperous and powerful groups: the white and black communities. The South itself was split into two different regions. The Upper South was majority white (those with European descent), especially in areas such as Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. The Lower South (such as Florida, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama) were majority black (African Americans and Caribbean Americans). One common factor was the Protestant nature of the region. After abolition, many former slaves turned to various sects of Protestantism (ranging from Vicinusum to the newly created Black Baptism). Added with white Protestants in the region, Protestantism was prevalent and visible in everyday life. Due to the rural nature of the area, the South was economically conservative (though there were exceptions to this norm, such as northern Virginia, the urban areas of the Carolinas, and Maryland), but socially moderate. While relations between the white and black communities were lukewarm, they were both accepting of each other and often cooperated with one another to further the economic interests of the South. This was the primary reason why the South remained a stronghold for Democrats and Republicans for decades...

One of the most unique cultures was the Native American culture that developed in the Native American states and territories. States such as Iroquois and Hisigi were more open to outsiders, seeing them as potential business opportunities. Iroquois was well-known to be one of the more progressive states, allowing settlers to inhabit the western parts of its state (that was relatively untouched by the local tribes). However, even the Iroquois fit the "Native American mold" that was created by the public's perception. Native Americans were friendly and engaging, even to non-tribal members. Even so, they were fiercely competitive and stubborn, often the last communities to accept any major political and economic shifts (with the only exception being women's rights). Native American states were generally conservative and proud of their autonomy, the western ones even more so. The Native American culture created during this time period was an awkward one as the tribes integrated with the rest of the United States, while at the same time maintaining their ways of life and customs. As such, it wasn't surprising that the Native American states lagged behind in industry compared to the other states while focusing more on communal agriculture (that was mainly between tribes and families), maintaining a tribal political system in their states (Chief-Governors, tribal councils, and a nationwide "Native American council"), and generally disliking any form of settlers (except Native American ones) “occupying" their lands...

The West was very distinct from the other regions. Isolated from the rest of the nation and constantly facing hostilities from Native Americans, the West developed a more "hardy" culture compared to the rest of the nation. Divisions and disunity were not tolerated and communities were small and tight-knit. Families constantly shared food and supplies with one another to survive, and western farming cooperatives were generally smaller than their eastern counterparts. To the people of the West, the United States was divided between two regions: the "East" (any states east of Illinois, with Ontario and Quebec also included in the mix) and the West. The West was well-known for creating many of American legends and myths (such as the Native American spirits that protected the daring settlers in the West, along with the stories of Paul Bunyon and the Jiibay (meaning "ghosts" in Ojibwe, which was a nickname for the Gurkhas). The West also valued discipline and marksmanship, producing a number of talented soldiers and officers throughout the 19th century (many of which fought in the Anglo-American War). Religion was important to many Westerners, but it was not as prevailing as it was in the South or Canada, as most Westerners focused on survival and prosperity more than worship. Surprisingly, this instinct for survival made the Westerners socially accepting of all races, as a "them vs us" mentality set in and many different races cooperated with one another to survive in the western frontiers of the nation. The only exception to this notion was the "western" Native Americans (which were differentiated from the "more civilized" "eastern" Native Americans), as they were viewed negatively after the decades-long conflict between the United States and the Sioux Nation. These Westerners would set the tone for the rest of the west as the Louisiana Purchase expanded America's frontiers and the Homestead Act of 1819 opened the floodgates for millions of immigrants to acquire land out in America's new stretch of territories..."