The Wise Men From Afar: An Analysis of the American Expedition to Asia

Written by Isiah Lee, an article published by the New York Times in 1999

"... The Kim Embassy, as the American Embassy to China was often called, entered after the disgraceful exit of the Macartney Embassy. Not only did the Macartney Embassy fail to develop any substantial relations with the Qing Empire, but it also created an air of misunderstanding between the Middle Kingdom and one of Europe's most prominent powers. George Macartney, the leader of the British Embassy, was instructed by King George III to prove Britain's superiority over the United States. This was not done out of spite or due to America's growing industrial and economic might. Indeed, it is widely believed that King George desired to ensure that Great Britain gained a favorable status in China and sought to ensure that the British Embassy was not eclipsed by the American Embassy. Additionally, the presence of a potential "Chinaman" negotiating for the United States only strengthened King George's (and by extent, Macartney's) motivation to ensure that Britain was not met with another defeat in the international front. Despite tales to the contrary, King George held some respect for former American president Samuel Anyoung Kim, who he considered as both a revolutionary upstart and an inspiring leader. Even so, he feared that the "Chinaman" would give the American Embassy an unparalleled advantage and allow the United States to gain access to the wider Chinese market. Perhaps if King George was aware of Kim's true intentions behind the embassy, he would have softened the pressure on Marcartney and the other members of the British Embassy. Unfortunately, that was not meant to be.

Macartney, upon recommendation from other British officials, prepared gifts to demonstrate the "British technological and mechanical superiority." From various clocks to an entire planetarium, the items that Macartney brought for his trip to China were supposed to signify the technical prowess of the British Empire. He and the members of the Embassy believed that gifting these items would earn the favor of the Qianlong Emperor, as they were some of the most advanced machines that Great Britain had to offer at the time. Unlike the Kim Embassy, the Macartney Embassy rejected entertaining the idea of introducing machines used for trade or industry, continuing Britain's long-standing policy of protecting its industrial secrets. Instead, all the gifts presented to the Qianlong Emperor was for personal, entertainment use. And while they were impressive machines, the items failed to convey the true strength of Great Britain (namely its industrial might). This would be another factor that would lead to the ultimate impasse between the two empires.

The Macartney Embassy originally traveled with the American Embassy towards Asia, after the Kim Embassy stopped by Europe in order to meet with foreign dignitaries in France, the Netherlands, and Great Britain. The three British ships and eight American ships that consisted of the fleet sailed from Great Britain on April 6th of 1790, stopping in several outposts across Africa and India for resupply. From there, the fleet arrived in Vietnam on June 17th of 1790, with Kim and the American Embassy paying respects to the Emperor of Dai Vet (Vietnam) Quang Trung. Macartney pointedly refused to meet with the Dai Vet Emperor, believing that the nation was a backwater compared to the more prosperous and profitable region of China. Instead, he planned extensively with the members of his Embassy for his audience with the Chinese Emperor on board his flagship, the HMS Lion. Shortly after Kim returned from his mission, the British Embassy and the American Embassy parted ways due to a conflict of interest. Macartney wanted to make a good first impression to the Chinese Emperor and believed that seeing him before the American Embassy arrived would make it harder for Kim and his men to leave an impact. Motivated by the Kim Embassy's departure to the Lanfang Republic, Macartney wasted no time to proceed forward with his goal of making contact with the Qianlong Emperor. On July 15th, he was at Tianjin, the gateway to Beijing, with his Embassy (which had miraculously avoided disease during the journey). To his great relief, the Chinese Emperor agreed to meet with his embassy personally, in no part due to the urging of Macartney. As the Qianlong Emperor was leading an imperial hunting expedition north of the Great Wall at the time, the Macartney Embassy was guided to Chengde, the site of the imperial city the Emperor used during his hunting expedition.

However, even before Marcartney reached Chengde, his Embassy was doomed for failure. There were various reasons why the Macartney Embassy was unsuccessful, unlike the Kim Embassy. The biggest, and most glaring, flaw of the Macartney Embassy was the failure to understand the perspective of the Qianlong Emperor and his Imperial Court. Macartney (mistakenly) believed that showing off the "superiority" of Great Britain would lead to an understanding between the two powers and open China up for trade. The general consensus of the Macartney Embassy was that China was powerful, but a technologically backward nation that could be persuaded to see "reason." With China accepting only silver and specific luxury goods from the Europeans for trade, the British leader of the Embassy was resolute in his belief that showing Britain's technological might would lead to British goods replacing the (hard to acquire) silver, ginseng, and fur needed for Chinese goods. This belief was contrary to the popular opinion in the Imperial Court, which believed that European powers were inferior and reliant on Chinese goods. Contrary to Marcartney's beliefs, China did not necessarily need British, or other European, goods. While there was little industry in the Qing Empire (as most of the industry were very small-scale compared to the growing industrial giants of the United States, Great Britain, and France), there was little demand for finished products and an even smaller demand to costly foreign goods (though European goods were popular among the Chinese elites). Moreover, China, was by all means, self sufficient in terms of all its demands and believed that the foreign nations had more to lose in the China Trade than they did. Thus, Macartney's demands (relaxation of trade restrictions, acquisition of a small Chinese island for British traders, and a permanent British embassy established in Beijing) were silently scoffed at. Essentially, Marcartney demanded far too much for far too little.

Another critical issue was formalities and etiquette. Macartney's refusal to kowtow (bowing and touching one's head onto the ground as an act of submission and respect), along with a list of cultural slights, quietly angered the Qianlong Emperor. At one point before the meeting, the Emperor nearly refused to entertain the Macartney Embassy, which was only prevented due to the intervention of Heshen (the Grand Secretary of the Wenhua Palace). Heshen, who was appointed by the Emperor to oversee the Macartney Embassy, reported that the British were not acting rude out of arrogance, but out of ignorance. Though the Qianlong Emperor agreed to move forward with the meeting with Macartney, the damage was already done. Not only were the British seen as arrogant (this sentiment was only amplified as Macartney made a list of stringent demands that was meant to demonstrate that the Qianlong Emperor was "equal" to King George III), but they were seen as ignorant barbarians as well. As a result, the Macartney Embassy was not treated with lavish ceremonies and parades that messengers from Portugal and the Netherlands. Instead, the Embassy was hastily taken to the Emperor, with their route filled with troops to signify the Qing Empire's strength and to ensure that the Macartney Embassy was not "bloated with arrogance and pride." On top of all this, the perception in among the Qing officials was that Macartney was considered a "conveyor of tribute," instead of a diplomatic delegate. Indeed, the Macartney Embassy was seen as a "tribute mission," while the gifts were believed to be "tributes." Macartney's insistence that the Embassy was a full diplomatic mission instead of a tributary mission only heightened the wariness of both sides.

In addition to all this, the British gifts failed to deliver awe and shock. This was mainly due to the poor choice in the gifts offered by the Macartney Embassy, whose members believed that the gifts were technological marvels to the Chinese. Despite their belief, mechanical clocks were commonly seen in the Imperial Palace back in Beijing (due to the Portuguese and Dutch), while naval technology drew little to no interest from the Emperor and his officials. The planetarium, which was designated to be the grandest of all the gifts, only drew annoyance from an increasingly impatient Emperor, as it took weeks to assemble and deconstruct. The gifts failed to leave an impression and the gift list provided to the Emperor was mistakenly mistranslated, which made the monarch believe that the British were purposely exaggerating "common" goods as refined, precise ones. This only increased the negative perception of the British and portrayed them as "arrogant, brash, and pompous."

Macartney's meeting with the Qianlong Emperor was short and lasted two days (from July 22nd to July 24th). Macartney bent his knee for the Chinese Emperor, presented his "tributes," delivered the letter from King George, participated in a grand feast with the members of his Embassy and Qing officials, and showered with gifts (it is important to note that many of these gifts were rather subpar compared to gifts that Kim would receive during his visit). Afterward, he was sent on his way back to Tianjing with a reply letter from the Qianlong Emperor. Eager for a response, he had the letter translated immediately. Up to this point, he believed that he had left a favorable impression upon the Chinese monarch. Unfortunately for Macartney and Great Britain, the Qianlong Emperor firmly rejected all of his proposals and refused to even entertain the "concessions." Frustrated, Macartney attempted to speak with the Emperor again in order to restart negotiations, but he was firmly rebuffed by Heshen (who was also getting annoyed by the British's antics). Thus, the Macartney Embassy left China without much fanfare and a dispirited Macartney departed back to Europe. He was originally supposed to travel to Japan after his trip to China, but the rejection from the Chinese Emperor deflated his enthusiasm and a disease outbreak swept through his ships. Thus, he was forced to return to Great Britain with nothing to show for his trip except the gifts he received from the Qianlong Emperor.

Historians commonly believe that this significantly influenced Macartney's perspective of the Chinese, as his Embassy's failure, along with the relative success of Kim's Embassy, festered a hatred of the Qing Empire. Upon his return to Great Britain, he published an account that portrayed China in a negative light, describing it as a "poor, backward nation which is on the verge of revolution and uprisings." This belief would eventually make its way into British politics, as the terrible memories of the Revolutionary War would gradually fade away with the new generation. Lord Rockingham, who served as Prime Minister from the end of the American Rebellion to 1791, would be replaced by Charles James Fox, a Whig and a member of the Rockingham's ministry, upon his death. Fox would be notable in his attempts to find other ways to open up China and his gradual halt of the slave trade. However, the failure of Macartney's Embassy worsened King George's mental health (and would eventually lead to a constant decline of his health until his death in 1810) and in 1799, the Tories would consolidate their rule over the government through Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, who would set the nation on course for conflict with China and the United States. The Tories would push forth anti-American policies, as they saw the United States as a threat to their Empire (due to its success in the Revolutionary War, its rapid economic and population growth, and its "success" in China). These fears would only be cemented due to the Louisiana Purchase (1818), the formation of the United States of Mexico and independent Central American republics (1825-1826), the creation of the League of American Nations (1826), and the Jamaican Rebellion (1825-1827). These events would only fan the flames of distrust between the two nations, until the two nations came to blows in 1832...

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Meanwhile, Kim's Embassy leisurely arrived in Canton on July 29th of 1790. By this time, the Macartney Embassy was out at sea and was traveling back to Great Britain to deliver the unfortunate news to King George. In a sharp contrast to the Macartney Embassy, the Kim Embassy was not in China to seek major trade concessions. Instead, they sought to "play the long game" with China (as they did with Korea and Japan). Instead of outright demanding trade concessions, the Americans sought to make concessions to the Qianlong Emperor in return for some minor cultural (not economical) concessions. The Kim Embassy focused on three concessions: allowing foreigners (especially Americans) to learn the Chinese languages (Cantonese, Mandarin, and Manchu), allowing some immigrants to make their way to America to settle (with promises of free land, thus allowing a Chinese population to grow in America and become a cultural bridge between the two nations), and the blessings of the Chinese Emperor for their trip to Korea and Japan (which would provide them with significant political clout). In turn, the Kim Embassy planned to offer a yearly tribute mission to the Emperor to pay their respects (loaded with silver, fur, and ginseng), allow a painting of the Emperor to be displayed in the White House (in the hallways near where the main office of the president was to be located), and place a direct Qing embassy in the United States so that the Qing government would have some insight on how the United States operated. This was all done to appease the Chinese monarch as much as possible, while at the same time cautiously requesting concessions that would (hopefully) lead to a better understanding between the two nations in the future. Additionally, a personal request was made for the Emperor to write letters of recommendation to the king of Joseon (King Jeongjo) and the Japanese shogun (Tokugawa Ienari). For the meeting with the Emperor, the members of the Kim Embassy practiced their social etiquette and manners religiously, and studied about Chinese traditions and culture through Chinese translators and locals.

In fact, when the group arrived in Tianjin on August 25th, they would leave a noticeable first impression on Heshen, who would state that the Americans are "barbarians, yet they carry with them the elegance and respect of a Chinese." The Grand Secretary was ordered by the Qianlong Emperor to closely supervise the Kim Embassy, as the Macartney Embassy left a poor impression on the ruler of China (the only reason the Emperor considered the Kim Embassy was due to Kim's timely letter, which left him slightly interested and intrigued). This time, the Qianlong Emperor wanted to ensure if the new delegation was worth meeting and Heshen was told to report on his perception of the Americans after meeting them. Heshen carried out the Emperor's will, but what he wrote shocked the monarch and his officials. In the report, the senior advisor claimed that the leader of the American Embassy was a Korean who spoke fluent Mandarin and Manchu (the latter surprised the court the most). Not only that, but he was told that the Americans had brought "sufficient tribute" in forms of silver, gold, gemstones, and two machines that were "simple, yet interesting." The attitude of the Americans and their approach to the local customs were also emphasized, with Heshen claiming that "the British are barbarians, but the Americans are civilized barbarians." The fact that the entire American delegation was more than willing to carry out the traditional etiquette of the Imperial Court was not unnoticed. As such, the Emperor, who's opinion and mood shot up quickly after reading the letter, ordered the Grand Secretary to treat the foreigners cautiously, but with greater splendor than he treated the British delegation. The Kim Embassy was approved to set forth and meet with the Qianlong Emperor.

Since Kim's "tributes" to the Qianlong Emperor were heavy, it took several weeks for the expedition to arrive at the Emperor's imperial city in Chengde. However, it was during this expedition that allowed Kim to gain a favorable reputation in the eyes of Qing officials that accompanied the American delegation. Kim traveled through Tianjin and Beijing benevolently, speaking with the locals and following all the guidelines set up by Heshen. The members of the delegation always followed local customs and never acted out of place (unlike the Macartney Embassy, which routinely attempted to gather information about the local regions and locals). He regularly spoke with the Qing officials (no translators were needed as Kim was able to speak both Mandarin and Manchu), looked out for their well-being, and instructed the one hundred Marines with him to protect the Qing officials above all else (despite their own objections to the order). To Heshen and the other officials, Kim was an articulate, intelligent individual that was well-cultured and respectful (indeed, Heshen would make comparisons of Kim and Macartney, claiming that they were as different as "heaven and earth themselves"). It was also during this journey that the Emperor's advisor would discover the history of Kim's past, which he revealed after some time. Shocked that a slave from a Qing tributary state traveled to foreign lands and led the white (and even black) foreigners in battle and in the government, the Grand Secretary would regularly speak with Kim on many matters. The topic of the American republic was purposely avoided (though not hidden), but the matters between the two top officials (ranging from Chinese superiority to the "barbarian" lands) would go lengths to raise the perception of the "měiguó rén" (Americans).

By the time Kim arrived at Chengde on September 14th, Heshen was ready to provide a glowing report of what he saw with the Kim Embassy. With multiple officials to back up his claim, the Grand Secretary set high expectations for the American delegation. It was important to note that this was also the time when the celebration for the Qianlong Emperor's 79th birthday began, making an exemplary American performance crucial to swaying the Emperor's perception of the group. Thankfully to the Kim Embassy, Kim and his chosen representatives (Colonel Daniel White, Major Oliver Williams, and Lieutenant Andrew Jackson) delivered spectacularly. Not only did all members of the delegation kowotow (one by one), but they all greeted the Emperor in Mandarin and then Manchu. The Emperor was more than pleased by the immense worth of the gifts and when urged to demonstrate their "hidden tributes" to the Emperor, they obliged. The cotton gin and the threshing machine (which was shown in a demonstration in a field) drew a stir from the crowd of delegates that were in the room (among them were ambassadors from Burma, the Muslim nations in Central Asia, and Dai Vet). When Kim bowed to the ground and offered the machines and their blueprints as a tribute to the Emperor, they were accepted with praise ("Gifts worthy of the Emperor and all of China"). Through Heshen's account, it was discerned that the Emperor was "most pleased" with the gifts and the cotton gin and thresher would be developed and used with great success in the future (which would only improve the relations between China and the United States). In fact, these machines would buoy the Qing's deteriorating finances and delay the opium problem (a problem that emerged after the British failed their negotiations with China). Though, this did not prevent the collapse of the Qing Empire in 1865 after the destructive Taiping Rebellion, the Nian Rebellion, and the Second Opium War.

After the "tributes" were received, the Qianlong Emperor also received a personal letter from President Thomas Jefferson and from Kim himself. They were written in Chinese and were carefully crafted to appeal to the Emperor. Like he did with Macartney, the monarch did not give an immediate reply to Kim's written pleas. However, it was noted by several officials in historical records that the Emperor was in "high spirits" and seated Kim and his envoys intentionally to his left (which was considered a high honor). The birthday celebration would last a week, which Kim and the other members of his Embassy fully enjoyed. Even the other Marines were allowed to participate in the celebration and by the end of the week, the Kim Embassy was drowning in gifts from the gracious Qianlong Emperor. The trip was memorable enough that many members of the Kim Embassy either held on to some of the more aesthetic looking gifts to be passed on to their descendants or donated to the American National Museums of History and Culture (with items such as jade scepters, silk robes, and Chinese porcelain vases being some of the first exhibits in the museums when it opened in 1792).

When the Kim Embassy returned to Beijing, they received their reply from the Emperor. The Chinese monarch, extremely pleased by his meeting with the barbarians that accepted his superiority, agreed to the "generous and reasonable requests made by a tributary nation." He specified that barbarians who acknowledged the supremacy of the "Son of Heaven" would be allowed to learn the languages of the Qing Empire, a selective way of the Emperor giving the Americans a preferential status on the matter. He also agreed to allow some of his beloved subjects to "leave China and enrich the lands of America, which have shown their loyalty to me." A hard quota was set on the number (3,000 per year) to control the emigration rates. As for an embassy, the Qianlong Emperor rejected it, in favor of having three Qing officials act as "observers to the "President of the United States of America, a head of a tributary state which must learn the guidance of the Son of Heaven." However, the Emperor did assure that they were merely to observers and the post was mostly ceremonial, but they were to oversee all affairs regarding China. Above all else, he stated that the United States was "more than welcome to trade with China, provided that they follow their promises." The end of the letter ended like all the letters the Qianlong Emperor sent to his subjects, "Do not say that you were not warned in due time! Tremblingly obey and show no negligence!" And attached to the letter was a pair of letters addressed to the king of Joseon and the Japanese Shogun, telling them to "protect the Americans and listen closely to the requests made by them."

It was a total diplomatic rout. Up until then, the European powers struggled to form any sort of diplomatic connection to the isolationist Middle Kingdom. Yet, the Americans managed to pull off a miracle and not only have China acknowledge them in some senses but to gain (albeit minor) concessions from China. Shortly after the Kim Embassy left China entirely, China would show preference to American traders and allow them to have a bigger chunk of the China Trade. The American factory in Canton was expanded to sit upon the sites of two factories and Qing officials would travel to Canton to receive official reports about the "tributary state" of the United States yearly. It was a stunning victory for the young republic, which saw its prestige and recognition in China rise (though, it could be argued for the wrong reasons). The United States did follow up with yearly tributes (which was supplied by Kim, until his death, and then by the American government until the collapse of the Qing Empire). They also placed a portrait of Qianlong Emperor (and later his successors), which was hand-drawn by the official portrait maker of the Emperor himself, in the hallways of the White House. After the fall of the Qing Empire, these portraits were donated to the American National Museums of History and Culture.

All in all, the Kim Embassy succeeded where the Macartney Embassy failed; earn the recognition of China and gain some concessions. Ultimately, the Chinese rejection of the British and the alleviation of the Americans would result in an intense backlash against China in Britain. As explained earlier, this would lead to growing anti-American sentiments as well. The Anglo-American War of 1832 only reaffirmed Britain's negative view of China, as America appealed to China during the war and the Qing Empire found a good enough excuse to kick the British out of the nation entirely in 1833 (for declaring war on a tributary state of China without provocation, when in reality it was for the excessive smuggling of opium carried out by British traders). This resentment, like the resentment towards the United States, would lead to the explosive First Opium War, beginning the "Time of Troubles" in the Qing Empire and leading to its collapse in 1865..."