In this instalment I will go over some of the most common punctuation marks because someone asked me for information on them and I would have completely forgotten about them otherwise.

The first I will go over is the comma. Commas and full stops are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as full stops. (I'm Irish, full stop is the way I was taught in school).

Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series of three or more items.

~Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and nephew.

When the last comma in a series comes before and or or (after daughter-in-law), it is called the Oxford comma. Most newspapers and magazines drop the Oxford comma in a simple series, apparently feeling it's unnecessary. However, omission of the Oxford comma can sometimes lead to misunderstandings.

~We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.

Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear that cheese and crackers represents one dish. In cases like this, clarity demands the Oxford comma.

~We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes.

Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford comma. Writers must decide Oxford or no Oxford and not switch back and forth, except when omitting the Oxford comma could cause confusion as in the cheese and crackers example.

Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the adjectives are interchangeable.

~Example: He is a strong, healthy man.

We could also say healthy, strong man.

~Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.

We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.

Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using a comma instead of a full stop. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more technically, a comma splice.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.

There are several simple remedies:

Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.

Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the door.

Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door.

Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both quite short:

~Example: I paint and he writes.

If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary.

~Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.

Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello, hey, etc.

~Examples:

~Why, I can't believe this!

~No, you can't have money.

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).

~Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.

Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of a person directly addressed.

~Examples:

~Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?

~Yes, old friend, I will.

~Good day, Captain.

Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, and—what most people forget!—always put one after the year, also.

~Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition.

No comma is necessary for just the month and year.

~Example: It was in a June 2003 article.

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Use the apostrophe to show possession. To show possession with a singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter "s".

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~Examples:

~A woman's hat

~The boss's wife

~Mrs. Ford's house

Many common nouns end in the letter s (lens, cactus, bus, etc.). So do a lot of proper nouns (Mr. Jones, Texas, Christmas). There are conflicting policies and theories about how to show possession when writing such nouns. There is no right answer; the best advice is to choose a formula and stay consistent.

Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe to all nouns ending in s. And some add an apostrophe + s to every proper noun, be it Hastings's or Jones's.

One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + s ('s) to common nouns ending in s, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in s.

~Examples:

~The class's hours

~Mr. Jones' golf clubs

~the canvas's size

~Texas' weather

Care must be taken to place the apostrophe outside the word in question. For instance, if talking about a pen belonging to Mr. Hastings, many people would wrongly write Mr. Hasting's pen (his name is not Mr. Hasting).

~Correct: Mr. Hastings' pen

Another widely used technique is to write the word as we would speak it. For example, since most people saying, "Mr. Hastings' pen" would not pronounce an added s, we would write Mr. Hastings' pen with no added s. But most people would pronounce an added s in "Jones's," so we'd write it as we say it: Mr. Jones's golf clubs. This method explains the punctuation of for goodness' sake.

Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter s or -es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s.

~Correct: guys' night out (guy + s + apostrophe)

~Incorrect: guy's night out (implies only one guy)

~Correct: two actresses' roles (actress + es + apostrophe)

~Incorrect: two actress's roles

Do not use an apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural.

~Incorrect: Apostrophe's are confusing.

~Correct: Apostrophes are confusing.

~Incorrect: We've had many happy Christmas's.

~Correct: We've had many happy Christmases.

In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not normally a noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity.

~Example: Here are some do's and don'ts.

In that sentence, the verb do is used as a plural noun, and the apostrophe was added because the writer felt that dos was confusing. Not all writers agree; some see no problem with dos and don'ts.

English also has many irregular nouns (child, nucleus, tooth, etc.). These nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire irregular plural noun before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.

~Incorrect: two childrens' hats

The plural is children, not childrens.

~Correct: two children's hats (children + apostrophe + s)

~Incorrect: the teeths' roots

~Correct: the teeth's roots

Things can get really confusing with the possessive plurals of proper names ending in s, such as Hastings and Jones.

If you're the guest of the Ford family—the Fords—you're the Fords' guest (Ford + s + apostrophe). But what if it's the Hastings family?

Most would call them the "Hastings." But that would refer to a family named "Hasting." If someone's name ends in s, we must add -es for the plural. The plural of Hastings is Hastingses. The members of the Jones family are the Joneses.

To show possession, add an apostrophe.

~Incorrect: the Hastings' dog

~Correct: the Hastingses' dog (Hastings + es + apostrophe)

~Incorrect: the Jones' car

~Correct: the Joneses' car

In serious writing, this rule must be followed no matter how strange or awkward the results.

Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.

~Incorrect: The Wilson's are here.

~Correct: The Wilsons are here.