Message from the Author
I have added this note because I don’t want the historians among you to stop reading when the action travels to Denmark.
Historians tell us that the pre-Christian Celts of Britain and Ireland never met the Norse peoples of Scandinavia because there was never any travel between the two locations. Celtic myths and legends tell us otherwise.
According to the legend of Cú Chulainn, the young Irish warrior rescued a Scandinavian princess, Dervla, while traveling abroad. They don’t specify where he traveled, but I suspect it was probably in Denmark. Also, before the battle of Ros na Ríg, Conall Cernach is supposed to have visited Scandinavia and the Faroe Islands to recruit warriors.
Of course, when monks transcribed the Irish myths, the Viking raid on Lindisfarne had already taken place, and the monks were aware of the Norse clans. However, the recent discovery of Scandinavian remains in York, which were dated to the first century CE (after Christ), implies that there was contact before the raid of CE793.
Whatever the truth, I have chosen to believe the myths for this story, and Conall travels to the land of the Jutes in Northern Denmark.
CONALL IN DENMARK
According to the mythology prior to the battle of Ros na Rig, Conall was in Scandinavia and the Faroe Islands raising tribute for Mac Nessa and returned to Ulster with a great fleet of allies in support of the king. This story is another example of the contradictory nature of the Irish Mythological cycles, in that Mac Nessa ran from the battle of Gáirech and would have been disgraced in the eyes of warriors like Conall. They had also fallen out before the Cattle Raid of Cooley to the extent where Conall defected to the opposing side—Ulster’s arch enemy, Connacht. It is possible that there was reconciliation between them after Ailill killed Fergus, but for me it is a real stretch. I think it much more likely that Conall returned from Scandinavia at the head of an army destined to oppose Mac Nessa and not support him.
LANGUAGE
There is an apparent anomaly in the Irish legends: how did the Irish, the Scandinavians, and the tribes of Northern Germany communicate? The Irish spoke ancient Gaelic; the Danes and Germans spoke a proto-Germanic language. Experts believe the common proto-Celtic language spanned much of Northern Europe but do not think the area of influence stretched as far north as Denmark. There must have been some cross-contamination between the Indo-European language groups, not least because the Celts inhabited vast swaths of the area I chose as a setting for this book. Contemporary historians often grouped the Celts and the Germans in broad race, which is understandable as much of their culture seems interchangeable.
The legends do not mention how they communicated; I have adopted that approach. Trying to write believable dialog when some form of translation or interpretation occurred would have made the story extremely cumbersome to read.
THE BATTLE OF TEUTOBURG
The Battle of Teutoburg (often called Teutoburg Forest) was one of the Romans’ worst defeats. It held back Roman expansion into Germany until the Marcomanni wars during Marcus Aurelius’s reign (CE166 to 180).
Varus marched three legions into the forest to put down a rising by the Angrivarii, only to be ambushed by an alliance of German clans and suffer a heavy defeat.
Although there is no specific mention of participation by the clans of Denmark, it is not beyond believable. Like the Celts, the Germanic tribes kept no written records so we cannot know which clans participated. The Teutons and the Cimbri (two Danish clans of the era) had already fought against the Romans in the Cimbrian war, and I could envisage them participating in another anti-Roman alliance.
TREATMENT OF THE ROMANS
According to Tacitus, the Roman survivors after the battle were treated with extreme brutality. The officers were sacrificed by being boiled alive in big pots and their bones used in rituals. The common soldiers were sold into slavery.
NUMONIUS VALA
Numonius was a Legate under Varus’s command during the battle of Teutoburg. He fled with the cavalry during the battle but was caught and killed beside the Rhine.
MARCUS CAELIUS
Marcus Caelius was the Primus Pilus of the XVIII Legion and died at the Battle of Teutoburg. He is known because of a cenotaph erected in his memory that was discovered in 1620 in Birten (now in Xanten), Germany. I do not know if he rescued Varus while the Romans tried to storm the earthen rampart, but it seems likely that the first cohorts of the legions would be selected and, as First Javelin, Caelius would have been involved in the assault.
CEIONIUS
Ceionius was a Praefectus Castrorum (Camp Prefect, third-in-command) and was the officer who surrendered to the Germanics and then took his own life.
LUCIUS EGGIUS
Lucius Eggius was a Praefectus Castrorum of the XVII Legion who served in Germany. He is supposed to have died at the Battle of Teutoburg. I have promoted him to Banded Tribune for this narrative to provide Varus with an ally as balance to Numonius.
LEGION STRUCTURE
The basic structure was:
Legio (legion) consisted of ten cohorts.
The contubernium (tent group) of 8 men.
The Centuria (Century) comprised ten contubernia totaling 80 men commanded by a centurion.
Cohorts included six centuries totaling 480 fighting men, excluding officers. The first cohort had five double-strength centuries.
The First Cohort had 800 men (five double-strength centuries of 160 men). The other nine Cohorts had six centuries of eighty men. Each legion had a 120-man cavalry and totaled 5,240 men, excluding officers.
The designation of the cohorts was the same for all Legions. During a battle, the arrangement of the cohorts merged the strongest and weakest, maximising morale and the legion’s effectiveness.
I: Elite troops commanded by the First Javelin, the highest-ranked Centurion.
II: First of the weak cohorts, comprising poor soldiers and recruits.
III: No special designation.
IV: Another of the four weak cohorts.
V: No special designation.
VI: Comprising good troops.
VII: Another of the four weak cohorts.
VIII: Comprising prime troops.
IX: Another of the four weak cohorts.
X: Comprising good troops.
HIGH-LEVEL LEGION OFFICERS
The following are the main ranks of a legion. There are other ranks, which I didn’t include because of a lack of relevance.
LEGATE
The commander. This post–a former Tribune–was appointed by the Emperor. The commander generally served for 3 or 4 years, although they could serve longer.
In provinces with multiple legions, the Imperial Legate held overall command and acted as governor.
BANDED TRIBUNE
A Banded Tribune took their title from the broad striped toga worn by men of senatorial rank. The Emperor or the Senate appointed Banded Tribunes.
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Though usually young and less experienced than a Tribune, the Banded Tribune served as the legion’s second in command.
CAMP PREFECT
Usually, a long-serving veteran was promoted through the ranks of the centurions and was third in command.
TRIBUNE
Each legion had five Tribunes of the equestrian class. They were career officers who performed the legion’s administrative tasks and tactical command functions during battle.
FIRST JAVELIN
The First Javelin commanded the first cohort. The First Javelin was the senior Centurion of the legion. Service in this position gave entry into the equestrian class on retirement.
Each of the remaining cohorts had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each Century. They were career soldiers who managed the legionaries’ daily life and issued commands in the field.
Most Centurions gained promotion from the ranks, but the Emperor or other high-ranking officials could appoint them.
A cohort’s centurions were ranked from one to six, with only five centuries in the First Cohort, totaling 59 centurions and the First Javelin.
LOW-LEVEL OFFICERS
PRINCIPALES
The Principales were the equivalent of modern-day non-commissioned officers. They had the following rank structures from highest to lowest:
AQUILIFER
The Aquilifer was the Legion’s Standard bearer. The Aquilifer was responsible for protecting the legion’s eagle during battle. An Aquilifer gained promotion to Centurion.
SIGNIFER
There was a Signifer responsible for the men’s pay and savings in each legion. He was also the Centurial Signum bearer, a spear shaft decorated with medallions, often topped with an open hand to signify the legionaries’ oath of loyalty. It was this banner that the men rallied around.
OPTIO
The Centurion appointed an Optio from the ranks for each Century. The Optio was second in command.
CORNICEN (BUGLER)
They worked with the Signifer when signalling legionaries both with a horn and reissuing officers’ verbal commands.
LOWER RANKS
IMMUNES
These were trained specialists, such as surgeons, engineers, surveyors, architects, and craftsmen. They were exempt from camp and hard labor duties because of their specialization and would earn more pay than the Milites.
DECANUS
The leader of a contubernium. The decanus was the equivalent of a modern junior non-commissioned officer, such as a lance corporal.
MILITES
Foot soldiers.
TIRONES
Recruits. A Tirones could take up to six months before becoming a Milites.
DECIMATION
Decimation was a military discipline where every tenth man in a group was executed by members of his cohort. Decimation was used to punish units or large groups guilty of capital offences, such as cowardice, mutiny, desertion, and insubordination. In this way, it was simultaneously possible to maintain a large group’s integrity at the same time as discouraging further gross misconduct.
DRUIDS
Druids are a contentious subject. Who were they? What was their role? How much of the sixteenth-century romanticists’ interpretation (take Merlin) is conjecture, and how much can be considered realistic? Aside from Archaeological evidence, all we know comes from Classical commentaries, specifically of Julius Caesar and Tacitus, but also of Strabo and Diodorus. The writings of Strabo and Diodorus so closely resemble those of Caesar it is likely there was some cross contamination between them. Caesar was the earliest to provide detail, so it is likely the others used him as a source.
Even the origin of the word itself is subject to disagreement. The modern term derives from the Latin druidae. However, ancient Classical writers said it came from a Gaulish word but were not specific. Some say it comes from the old Irish druí (sorcerer) or the old Welsh dryw (seer; wren). It could also derive from a proto-Celtic construct (hypothetical), druwides, meaning “oak-knower”.
We know little about their origins. Many believed druids existed throughout proto-Celtic Europe, from Ireland to Turkey (Anatolia), but modern archaeologists think it unlikely. Archaeological evidence points to them being native to Ireland, Britain, and Western France. Unlike popular belief that their religion revolved around stone circles, the Classical writers placed them in caves and sacred glades. That would tally with old ideas that the druids arrived with the Celts and were not associated with stone circles. However, there is evidence in the Paviland caves near Swansea that the druids were in Britain as many as twenty-six thousand years ago. Evidence in France (Lascaux) shows that druids might have existed seventeen thousand years ago.
None of these theories can be corroborated because very little has been written about druids. Although Caesar tells us of their literacy, they kept no written records of their practices because it would have contradicted their religious geis or taboos. Greeks referenced druids as early as the 4th century BCE. The first detailed writings were from Caesar in the middle of the first century BCE.
What Caesar tells us in the Comentarii de Bello Gallico, his Gallic war history, is intriguing.
As well as philosophers, the druids were a powerful political force, but they also practiced many professions, such as education, medicine, and law, and were advisers to kings and chieftains. Caesar tells us that they originated in Britain and hints that their influence continued to emanate from Britain into Gaul. Archaeological evidence suggests they had a power base in Anglesey, which would back Caesar’s theory.
He also touches on druidic centers of learning, telling us that they learnt their lore as a verbal tradition. Many believe the primary learning center to have been on the island of Anglesey. Becoming a druid took as long as twenty years, so vast was the material they needed to learn.
“Magnum ibi numerum versuum ediscere dicuntur. Itaque annos nonnulli vicenos in disciplina permanent.”
– Comentarii De Bello Gallico by Julius Caesar
“They are said to learn a great number of verses, and therefore some remain under training for twenty years.” (Transliteration)
Caesar states that the primary religious doctrine of the druids was reincarnation. However, Tacitus also refers to the practice of sorcery during the first invasion of Anglesey, around 60 CE. The Fourteenth Legion crossing the Menai Straits were halted by witches and druidic spells.
“…while between the ranks dashed women, in black attire like the Furies, with hair disheveled, waving brands. All around, the Druids, lifting up their hands to heaven, and pouring forth dreadful imprecations, scared our soldiers by the unfamiliar sight, so that, as if their limbs were paralyzed, they stood motionless, and exposed to wounds.”
— The Annals of Imperial Rome by Cornelius Tacitus
As did others after him, Caesar claimed the druids performed human sacrifices, burning their victims while tied to wicker men. The victims were usually criminals, but when none were available, they would sacrifice ordinary citizens. He writes that because of their reincarnation beliefs, sacrifice would often be offering one soul in place of another at risk because of illness or battle. Modern historians think references to human sacrifice were nothing more than Roman propaganda. The reason is Romans often painted the conquered as savages. Romans thought themselves more civilized, considering sacrificing criminals to be barbaric but feeding them to lions, nothing more than entertainment for the masses. However, archaeological evidence shows that the druids did sacrifice humans, so it is difficult to know the truth.
Other Romans wrote about druids. For example, Pliny the Elder noted, “To murder a man was to do the act of highest devoutness and to eat his flesh was to secure the highest blessings of health.” These words, however, were obviously just embellishing what Caesar had already written.
That druids had a considerable influence over the Celtic clans is apparent. It was part of Roman imperialism to tolerate local laws and religions whenever possible. Not so the druids. After Romans suppressed them in Gaul under Tiberius, Claudius declared them outlaws in 54 CE, and Gaius Suetonius Paulinus invaded Anglesey to eradicate them. There can be only one reason why this persecution was considered necessary. Fear. The Boudican uprising meant that Suetonius failed. Agricola finally succeeded almost twenty years later, signalling the end of classical druidism.
Shortly after the advent of Christianity, the druids faded into obscurity, losing their priestly duties and becoming bards (filí). It is unclear if this obscurity is due to Roman persecution or Christianity’s spread. What is clear is that Christians assimilated many of the druid’s pagan rituals into Christian rites and festivals, such as moving Christ’s birth from spring to coincide with the Winter Solstice.
Modern desires have created much of druidism’s mythos, such as freemasonry is a direct descendant and that stone circles were central to druidic beliefs and making Myrddin (Merlin) a wizard with magical powers. There was a druidic revival in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries based more on that romantic conjecture than reality. Although we know little, Neo-Druidism takes inspiration from Classical accounts and romantic writers since the revival and archaeology and symbolism of proto-Druidic or pre-Druidic stone circles.
DÚN SCÁITH
The legend of Dún Scáith and the warrior druidess, Scathach arises throughout Celtic mythology. She is meant to have trained warriors such as Cú Chulainn, Conall, and Fergus Mac Roi among others. This is another area of the mythology where the timelines are blurred. I have covered this discrepancy by having not only druid lore being handed down from druid to druid, but also their names. So, the druidess who trained Conall at Dún Scáith had the same name as the druidess who trained Cú Chulainn many years later but was not necessarily the same woman. This might go some way to explaining the myth of Merlin being born old and growing younger, if someone met him when he was old and then met a later namesake who was much younger.